Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1998"
TL;DR: In this paper, the concept of stakeholder is proposed to be more directly incorporated into any multiple criteria decision aid (MCDA) approach, in order to take the systemic socio-political aspects of the decision processes into account.
Abstract: Research into quantitative decision-making has undeniably made considerable progress in recent years, having gone from coping with single decision-maker, single criterion to multiple decision-makers, multiple criteria decisions situations. Suitable mathematical methods and instruments have been perfected and are now quite sophisticated. Moreover, they are often supported by a powerful software. However, most decision situations require that the systemic socio-political aspects of the decision processes be taken into account and the methods and instruments developed so far may not be satisfactory in this regard. This paper presents a proposition that is aimed at improving this situation. It is based on the concept of stakeholder which, in our view, should be more directly incorporated into any multiple criteria decision aid (MCDA) approach. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
246 citations
TL;DR: The blind spot is one of a number that are indicators of our undeveloped and distressed psychosocial state as mentioned in this paper, and only by including such factors in our systems analyses will it be possible to establish a truly sustainable agriculture and food system.
Abstract: Modern agriculture is unsustainable, largely because our overemphasis on production, and on its achievement through inappropriate physical, chemical and biological manipulation, has resulted in the neglect of maintenance functions within agroecosystems. This blind spot is one of a number that are indicators of our undeveloped and distressed psychosocial state. Only by including such factors in our systems analyses will it be possible to establish a truly sustainable agriculture and food system. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
70 citations
TL;DR: The whimsical title reflects the dismay over the rampant confusion regarding the use of key concepts from thermodynamics and information theory in various disciplines, especially in relation to theories of biological evolution.
Abstract: Our whimsical title reflects our dismay over the rampant confusion regarding the use of key concepts from thermodynamics and information theory in various disciplines, but especially in relation to theories of biological evolution. After a brief introduction to this challenging literature, we begin by drawing a critically important distinction between ‘order’ and the informed ‘functional organization’ that characterizes living systems. We then outline what we believe is the appropriate paradigm for theorizing about the role of energy and information in biological processes; in essence, our paradigm is cybernetic. This is followed by a brief discussion of thermodynamics, with particular reference to its application to living systems. Two concepts that are well developed in the engineering literature but not commonly used elsewhere provide an approach that we believe is both more rigorous and more readily understood, namely the ‘control volume’ frame of reference and the concept of ‘available energy’. Both of these concepts are defined in precise mathematical terms. We also critique some of the misuses of thermodynamic concepts. In Part II, we will discuss what we call the ‘thermoeconomics’ of living systems—that is, a cybernetic and economic approach to analyzing the role of available energy in biological evolution—and we will relate this paradigm to a distinction that we draw between various statistical and/or structural definitions of information and what we call ‘control information’. We will critique information theory and we will define control information in cybernetic terms not as a ‘thing’ but as an attribute of the relationships between things—namely, the capacity (know-how) to control the acquisition, disposition and utilization of matter/energy in purposive (teleonomic) processes. We will also suggest how control information can be measured empirically, and we will propose a methodology for linking thermodynamics and information theory that contrasts sharply with existing approaches to this problem. Finally, we will argue that in living systems thermodynamic processes may be subject to certain law-like ‘bioeconomic’ principles. We will also elucidate some implications. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors address the emerging need for systemic change in K-12 school systems, with consideration given to requirements for new mindsets on educational change, and describe the characteristics and elements of a systemic change guidance system which builds on the principles of process facilitation and systems design.
Abstract: This paper opens by addressing the emerging need for systemic change in K-12 school systems, with consideration given to requirements for new mindsets on educational change. Given the history of less than successful attempts at educational change, the need exists for a guidance system which helps change facilitators to guide school districts and communities through a systemic change process. The paper describes the characteristics and elements of a systemic change guidance system which builds on the principles of process facilitation and systems design. It examines in detail the integral values or beliefs related to facilitation and systemic change, the types of events (sets of activities) typically needed, and the processes which form the guidance system. Also discussed is the process used to create the guidance system. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
67 citations
TL;DR: An undescribability principle applies to logically open systems at the top of this hierarchy which is derived from a particular hierarchy of these systems and is proved relative to the limitations encountered when dealing with them.
Abstract: In this paper we propose a theory of logically open systems. These latter coincide with systems in metastable equilibrium with the environment, in which the system-environment interaction cannot be described, as a principle, without taking into account the inner state of the systems themselves. We introduce a particular hierarchy of these systems and we prove some results relative to the limitations encountered when dealing with them. We derive an undescribability principle which applies to logically open systems at the top of this hierarchy. Besides, we suggest a strategy for coping with these limitations and we sketch some possible applications of our theory to concrete cases. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
49 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that in living systems thermodynamic processes may be subject to certain law-like ‘bioeconomic’ principles and proposed a methodology for linking thermodynamics and information theory that contrasts sharply with existing approaches to this problem.
Abstract: In Part I of this paper, we critiqued the misuse of key concepts from thermodynamics and information theory in various disciplines, but especially in relation to theories of biological evolution. Following a brief introduction to this challenging literature, we began by drawing a critically important distinction between ‘order’ and the informed ‘functional organization’ that characterizes living systems. We then outlined what we believe is the appropriate paradigm for theorizing about the role of energy and information in biological processes; in essence, our paradigm is cybernetic. This was followed by a brief discussion of thermodynamics, with particular reference to its application to biological processes. Two concepts that are well developed in the engineering literature but not commonly used elsewhere provide an approach that we believe is both more rigorous and more readily understood, namely the ‘control volume’ frame of reference and the concept of ‘available energy’. Both of these concepts were defined in precise mathematical terms. In Part II, we discuss what we call the ‘thermoeconomics’ of living systems—that is, a cybernetic and economic approach to analyzing the role of available energy in biological evolution—and we relate this paradigm to a distinction that we draw between various statistical and structural definitions of information and what we call ‘control information’. We critique information theory and we define control information in cybernetic terms not as a ‘thing’ but as an attribute of the relationships between things—namely, the capacity (know-how) to control the acquisition, disposition and utilization of matter/energy in purposive (teleonomic) processes. We also suggest how control information can be measured empirically, and we propose a methodology for linking thermodynamics and information theory that contrasts sharply with existing approaches to this problem. Finally, we argue that in living systems thermodynamic processes may be subject to certain law-like ‘bioeconomic’ principles. We also elucidate some implications. Copyright © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
49 citations
TL;DR: By admitting autopoiesis as an example of formal cause at work in living systems, a more sufficient and natural description of biological phenomena results.
Abstract: A significant characteristic of post-Newtonian science is its exclusion of all but material and mechanical causalities. There is reason to question whether such minimalism is sufficient to describe living processes. Paradoxically, a strict material/mechanical stance may engender unnecessary anthropomorphism. By admitting autopoiesis as an example of formal cause at work in living systems, a more sufficient and natural description of biological phenomena results. Furthermore, recent advances in the analysis of networks provide a quantitative framework for identifying the effects of formal causes at the system level. # 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
44 citations
TL;DR: The authors are at a critical juncture of societal evolution where unprecedented human fulfillment as well as a loss of direction are equally possible and they have the potential and the opportunity to give direction to their evolution by design and steer it toward a hoped-for future.
Abstract: We are at a critical juncture of societal evolution where unprecedented human fulfillment as well as a loss of direction are equally possible. However, we are not at the mercy of forces beyond our control but have the potential and the opportunity to give direction to our evolution by design and steer it toward a hoped-for future, provided we: (1) develop evolutionary consciousness (2) engage in conscious evolution (3) acquire evolutionary competence by evolutionary learning (4) create evolutionary images of our future, and (5) bring those images to life by design. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
30 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider the ways that the relationships between corporations and society are developing in view of the increasing economic power of the former relative to the latter and give a brief overview of the nature of the perceived environmental crisis we face.
Abstract: This paper reflects upon the attempts by society to achieve environmental sustainability on the globe. It starts by considering the ways that the relationships between corporations and society are developing in view of the increasing economic power of the former relative to the latter and gives a brief overview of the nature of the perceived environmental crisis we face. Use is made of the metaphor of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ to illustrate this. Using systems thinking, the problem of the apparent conflict between individual self-interest and the needs of the community for long-term sustainability is explored and thoughts from this perspective about structural requirements for sustainability are developed. Concepts from systems thinking such as the need for autonomy to manage complexity, the parallel requirement for cohesion within recursive systems, the derived concept of citizenship to explore relationships with the community and finally levels of performance are all found to be of value in understanding this most pressing of human problems. Copyright © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
23 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the Confucian cultural tradition has made its imprint deeply onto the recent Oriental systems methodologies and it is suggested that in order properly to tackle the recent multi-sphere transformation in the post-Confucian societies, a conscious investigation of, and a critical attitude towards, the penetrating and profound influence of cultural tradition(s) is indispensable.
Abstract: This paper aims at summarising recent developments in Oriental systems methodologies, presenting outstanding features in these developments, and probing what has been conditioning and shaping the developments and features. The main message of the paper is that the Confucian cultural tradition has made its imprint deeply onto the recent Oriental systems methodologies. It is then suggested that in order properly to tackle the recent multi-sphere transformation in the post-Confucian societies, a conscious investigation of, and a critical attitude towards, the penetrating and profound influence of cultural tradition(s) is indispensable. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
23 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the nature of system development based on dialectical thinking is discussed in terms of contradiction in the Activity Theory and information systems development is presented as an example to demonstrate how information systems are developed in the light of this dialectical approach.
Abstract: This paper will approach the nature of system development based on dialectical thinking. To conduct this approach, the paper is divided into three parts. In the first part, the concept "contradiction' is introduced in the context of dialectical thinking. In the second part, "systems development' is discussed in terms of contradiction in the Activity Theory. And in the last part, "information systems development' is presented as an example to demonstrate how information systems are developed in the light of this dialectical approach. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: This article introduced the new evolutionary paradigm born of the synthesis of Darwinism and thermodynamics, whose theme is the integration of life and social process with physical law, and their objective is to show the coherence of life with the rest of nature.
Abstract: This paper introduces the new evolutionary paradigm born of the synthesis of Darwinism and thermodynamics. It also introduces this volume, whose theme is the integration of life and social process with physical law. The sense of this expansion is as follows: Darwinism has come under intense scrutiny in recent years, from several fields. These range from statistical mechanics to developmental biology. In this paper, I will discuss the direction the revision of the Darwinian program is taking through thermodynamics, which is the science of irreversible process and self-organization. My objective is to show the coherence of life with the rest of nature. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: Taoist Taoist wisdom has been incorporated into contemporary process theory and clinical and social philosophy as discussed by the authors, highlighting the coexistence of opposites (harmony and conflict, creation and decay, union and separation) in varying proportions, and the priority of differentiation over synthesis and creation over decay.
Abstract: This article is an attempt to incorporate Taoist wisdom into contemporary process theory, and clinical and social philosophy. It highlights the coexistence of opposites (harmony and conflict, creation and decay, union and separation) in varying proportions, and the priority of differentiation over synthesis, and of creation over decay. Opposites are complementary, and complementaries are opposite, both synergic and antagonistic. Opposites coexist (dialectics) but separated (logic). Interacting opposites co-create novelty, complexity and diversity. Life and culture emerge from the intercourse of opposites. Creation requires and fosters diversity. The oneness of nature is primary, but opposites separate and differentiate as the universe expands. Bifurcation and differentiation have objective and logical priority over dialectic synthesis and system formation. The current economic and cultural globalization impoverishes life insofar as it suppresses diversity. As corporations replace empires as international powers, the separation of the economy and the state from each other is a desirable and possible choice. While learning from Eastern philosophy to seek personal and social Tao, process theory also features action, ethical commitment, and co-creation. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: Two approaches to visioning will be compared and contrasted: evolutionary and discontinuous-leap approaches.
Abstract: Designing a system begins with creating a vision of it to guide the efforts that bring it to life. User-design of social systems involves the stakeholders or users of an enterprise in the collaborative visioning of their enterprise as a purposeful system. Such a process is called idealized systems design when user-designers are guided by deeply meaningful and inspiring shared values to create the most attractive and ideal vision of which they are capable. Two approaches to visioning will be compared and contrasted: evolutionary and discontinuous-leap approaches. In evolutionary approaches, such as appreciative inquiry, users explore ‘the best of what is’ in order to vision ‘what could be’. By contrast, discontinuous-leap approaches ask users to suspend or transcend existing reality to free their creative imaginations from the constraints of ‘what is’ in order to dream of ‘what could be’. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a general model of social ecology, focusing upon the ten subsystems of Living Systems Theory (LST) which process matter/energy, and analyzes how knowledge of these subsystem processes can be applied to our model.
Abstract: Social ecology studies the manner in which human societies adapt to their environment. This includes not only the impact of the society on the environment, but also the impact of the environment on the society. In fact, as societies adapt to their environment, they alter it, and this altered environment subsequently impacts back upon the society. Living Systems Theory (LST) discusses twenty critical subsystems which process either matter/energy or information in living systems, including social systems. This paper first presents a general model of social ecology. It then concentrates upon the ten subsystems of LST which process matter/energy, and analyzes how knowledge of these subsystem processes can be applied to our model of social ecology. These ten subsystems—the reproducer, boundary, ingestor, distributor, converter, producer, matter–energy storage, extruder, motor, and supporter—are all shown to occupy key roles in ecological adaptation, and the role of each is explicated. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the context and the systemic experiential theories that have informed the praxis of educating agricultural systems practitioners, which encourages learners to bring a range of methodologies of inquiry to bear upon problematic issues, contingent upon the nature of such issues.
Abstract: This paper describes the context and the systemic experiential theories that have informed the praxis of educating agricultural systems practitioners. The praxis has involved a process of action research with students and with clients in farming and other rural community organizations. The praxis encourages learners to bring a range of methodologies of inquiry to bear upon problematic issues, contingent upon the nature of such issues. Informed by a number of different theories, and by reflecting on our own work, an earlier model of a nested hierarchy of systems of inquiry has been reconstructed to become a more useful guide to educational strategies: Each contingent methodology can now be seen to have its own learning, meta-learning, and epistemic learning dimensions. A key to enriched learning for responsible changes in agriculture and rural development lies in the facilitation of the consciousness of, and competency at, such a systemic pluralism of methodologies.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the social systems theoretical framework and the procedural design of a group interaction procedure using a technique of iteration with control feedback named Imen-Delphi (ID).
Abstract: This paper presents the social systems theoretical framework and the procedural design of a group interaction procedure using a technique of iteration with control feedback named Imen-Delphi (ID). The ID procedure suggests an applied social systems technique that can improve the efficiency of a group of panellists to invent change through inter-group discussions and attain some level of agreement regarding their preferred future change.
TL;DR: The model facilitates the complex decision-making by structuring a number of subsequent decision tasks into an integrated decision- making process (IDMP).
Abstract: A systematic integration model is designed by synthesizing the systems approach and the Analytic Hierarchy Process. It aims to deal with complex decision-making which involves multiple interconnected subsequent decision-making tasks in a dynamic environment. The model facilitates the complex decision-making by structuring a number of subsequent decision tasks into an integrated decision-making process (IDMP). Identification of appropriate criteria is shown to depend on an individual task environment. Alternatives related to any subsequent decision-making task are evaluated with respect to both a set of criteria determined by the assessment of a particular task environment and a decision choice from its prior decision-making task. Therefore, decisions throughout the IDMP are consistent with not only different task environments but also the overall objective of the complex decision-making. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the human personality is represented as a coordinate system with four quadrants, or functions, each representing both a psychological process and a personality type in which it is dominant.
Abstract: Carl Gustav Jung envisioned the human personality as a system with vertical and horizontal dimensions. The former had to do with depth, while the latter can be understood as a coordinate system with four quadrants, or functions, each representing both a psychological process and a personality type in which it is dominant. These functions are termed sensation, thinking, feeling and intuition. Several investigators have found that pairs of these functions are useful to describe four typical types of social scientists. These are termed the sensing–thinking or Analytical Scientist, the intuition–thinking or Conceptual Theorist, the intuition–feeling or Conceptual Humanist, and the sensing–feeling or the Particular Humanist. Each is described using examples of scientists from the fields of creativity and consciousness studies, and suggestions are offered for the implementation of this model. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The key issue addressed by Boulding in this article is how to create a learning society in which there is widespread love of learning, in which large numbers of people continue the learning process long after formal education in over for them, and in which they raise questions and use encyclopedias, read books, form discussion groups, question authority, are active in the political learning process.
Abstract: The key issue addressed by Kenneth Boulding in this paper is ‘How do we create a learning society, in which there is widespread love of learning, in which large numbers of people continue the learning process long after formal education in over for them, in which they raise questions and use encyclopedias, read books, form discussion groups, question authority, are active in the political learning process; and in which formal education is seen just as part of a much larger learning process?’.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors map the crises humanity may expect in the future due to its mode of functioning and development, and the evolutionary perspectives are epitomized and principles of politics are derived accordingly.
Abstract: Theoretically the barriers of human evolution can be derived from the phenomenon and rules of socio-technical functioning, its interactions with the man-made functional environment. The analysis propounds that most conflicts and crises are of anthropogenic character. The aim of this paper is to map the crises humanity may expect in the future due to its mode of functioning and development. It is not its aim to evaluate different particular aspects of evolutionary perspectives of mankind. The irreconcilable contradictions, like the one between the self-modifying nature of human beings and the self-restoration capability of nature, might become barriers on the road of cognitive evolution. But even antagonistic contradictions can be bridged by creation of specific socio-economic mechanisms. The evolutionary perspectives are epitomized and principles of politics are derived accordingly. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The Open University's 'New Directions' project as discussed by the authors created a chaotic space for random communication across organizational boundaries so that the organization can begin to learn as a whole and respond faster to change.
Abstract: The Open University's ‘New Directions’ programme deliberately created a ‘chaotic’ space for random communication across organizational boundaries—so that the organization can begin to learn as a whole and respond faster to change. New Directions began as a series of workshops in 1993, with a random cross-section of the OU's 3500 staff sharing their views of the OU's future. From this, the programme developed outside formal organizational structures and participative mechanisms. The process has raised questions about formal and informal communications in the organization, and has contributed to reframing of some of our strategic priorities. This is an ‘action research’ project, which draws on theories about organizational learning and the mathematics of complexity. We have been able to observe how people, given agreement on what they need to do and some simple guidelines/directions, can organize themselves to do it without needing detailed plans. We have also observed some of the constraints on this self-organization. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The computer industry has been chosen to illustrate the application of a systems approach to green design in industry on account of both its increasing economic importance and the increasing role of computers in society as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Increased recognition of the importance of sustainable development is posing new challenges for industry. A systems approach gives a framework for reconciling the needs of sustainable development with all the other demands on industry. The computer industry has been chosen to illustrate the application of a systems approach to green design in industry on account of both its increasing economic importance and the increasing role of computers in society. A number of examples are given to illustrate the advantages of a systems approach to green design, and the main principles and some of the details of a systems approach to green design in the computer industry are discussed. Copyright © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: This paper addresses the issue of mismatch between traditional evaluation theory and practice and the need for new theory, models, and methodology for evaluating new system designs by proposing a framework for evaluating educational system designs.
Abstract: In reaction to claims that educational systems in the USA are not responding well to the needs of learners, school districts have responded with a highly diverse set of ‘reform activities’ ranging from increased focus on incremental improvements in programs to a variety of structural changes. A few educators began to ‘think systemically’, that is, they began to take systems principles into account as change efforts were designed and planned. Such educators have been able to obtain both guidance and encouragement from system philosophers, designers, and practitioners who are spearheading the emergence of a new technology concerned with the design of social systems. But, the challenge of rethinking how systems that redesign themselves might be evaluated has received too little attention. Like the mismatch believed to exist between current educational practice and the needs of learners, there is also a mismatch between traditional evaluation theory and practice and the need for new theory, models, and methodology for evaluating new system designs. This paper addresses this issue by proposing a framework for evaluating educational system designs. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define the revolution occurring in Japanese retail distribution from a systems-theoretic perspective, and identify factors leading to the success of certain types of retailers and the decline of others.
Abstract: The authors propose to define the revolution occurring in Japanese retail distribution from a systems-theoretic perspective, and to identify factors leading to the success of certain types of retailers and the decline of others. It is proposed that large general merchandising stores and national supermarkets are meeting the increased variety of the environment brought on by the bursting of the Japanese economic bubble, increased price consciousness of consumers, government deregulations and appreciation of the yen. These retailers are redefining their functions to enhance their internal variety, leading to greater efficiency and lower consumer prices. In contrast, traditional retail outlets, such as department stores and small individually-owned stores, have not been able to review their operations within the context of the changing environment and are trapped within their traditional business paradigms and reference models. As a result, they are facing decline. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The ideal way for development is to regard design and emergence not as opposites, but as synergistic complements, which are both essential for development.
Abstract: The mere mention of technology in health care, perhaps more notably than in any other field, evokes extreme reactions. This probably happens because health is such an important, subjective and sensitive issue for everyone. The role of technology is to improve the way we do things. When we set out to develop a certain technology, we ask the right questions and perform the right actions, and consequently we can arrive at a well-defined and reliable technology that has been designed according to our intentions. However, technology is not always created this way. Often, and in health care especially, it emerges through serendipity, maybe from an idea we have about performing a certain action or from realizing that some action or device we are using in a completely different activity might be useful in a new context. On their own both these approaches are suboptimal. The former hardly ever comes up with genuinely creative solutions as it is done in a too rigidly predetermined way. Although the latter might come up with some exciting ideas, if not followed up properly they will never be fully exploited, or if they are they might cause innumerable problems.
The ideal way for development is to regard design and emergence not as opposites, but as synergistic complements, which are both essential for development. Emergence must be incorporated into development with formal design procedures at each of its stages, whereas design steps must be applied to all emergent ideas. This latter procedure is of essential importance for the development of health care. However, it is important to be aware of some of the dangers one can experience with this procedure. New processes can be too closely associated with existing processes and open the way for the unwanted transfer of uncertainty between them. This could make the new technologies less than optimal. However, with special care these problems can be eliminated. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.