Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1999"

Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective

Abstract: Systemics and cybernetics can be viewed as a metalanguage of concepts and models for transdisciplinarian use, still now evolving and far from being stabilized. This is the result of a slow process of accretion through inclusion and interconnection of many notions, which came and are still coming from very different disciplines. The process started more than a century ago, but has gathered momentum since 1948 through the pioneering work of Wiener, von Neumann, von Bertalanffy, von Forster and Ashby, among many others. This paper tries to retrace the history of the accretion process and to show that our systemic and cybernetic language is an evolving conceptual network. This is of course only a first and quite incomplete attempt, merely destined to give the ‘feel’ of the process. Systemic concepts and models are underlined in order to enhance the perception of the process, as well as its systemic significance. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A systems approach to island tourism destination management

Abstract: Tourism destination management is an increasingly competitive and complex business involving the coordination of economic, social and geographic elements within a designated tourist area. Traditional research in tourism destination management has tended to use a reductionist approach in order to monitor certain flow variables (visitor numbers, expenditure) or to measure discrete relationships between variables (tourist expenditure and employment, visitor numbers and social impacts). The limitations of this approach in research are now becoming apparent, as tourism development impinges on many elements within a destination, and a new approach to research in tourism destination management is needed. This paper will provide an overview of systems approaches to tourism destination planning and management and describe a systems research approach to island tourism destination management. A systems approach to tourism management in small island tourist destinations (less than one million population) using soft systems methodology (SSM) is discussed. It is envisaged that SSM would best be applied to management of island tourism destinations because it can accommodate social and environmental processes, as well as the economic factors that have been the foci of previous research. Furthermore, it is argued that the tourism system is an open system in that it responds to changes in social, natural and economic factors and is evolving toward an increasing state of complexity. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Twenty laws of complexity: science applicable in organizations

Abstract: The ‘LTI Set’, consisting of 20 Laws of Complexity, a Taxonomy of the Laws of Complexity, and five Indexes of Complexity, is proposed as the core of a developing science of complexity that is applicable to resolving complexity in organizations. The LTI Set links to these included topics: Alternative Science-Free Organizational Practices; Educational Practices Appropriate to Complexity; Quality Control of Science; Applications of the Science of Complexity in Organizations; Enabling Conditions for Effective Organizational Practice. A critical condition for significant advances in resolving complexity is that the organization recognize the strong, even dominant, behavioral aspects of complexity, as reflected in the Laws; and take account of these in redefining the main role of top management. That role is to set up and administer a responsive corporate infrastructure to meet the demands of complexity, along the lines set forth here. Further advances in behavior can be made through new educational programs that reflect older scientific values applied to the challenges of today, in contrast to reliance on unwarranted assumptions that undermine organizations. Appropriately remodeled to reflect the relentless demands of complexity, the university can become a model for other institutions in society. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A structured model for evaluating information systems effectiveness

Abstract: Research in information systems (IS) indicates an absence of clear-cut models to assess IS effectiveness. While the costs are easily identifiable it is the benefits which are most difficult to assess due to the scope of impact of information systems. In order to provide structure to the problem this paper presents a hierarchical approach to develop an IS effectiveness model using structured modelling techniques. This study uses the prior research work and a survey to identify and relate factors of IS effectiveness. The results of the model show that ‘improving systems integration’ has the highest influence on information systems effectiveness, followed by ‘facilitating information retrieval’. We were able to validate our results by showing that they are consistent with the widely accepted ‘stages model’ of IS development. Of particular interest is the finding that significantly high levels of IS effectiveness are experienced by organizations in the penultimate or final stage of IS development. The most significant contribution of this study is the development of a comprehensive IS effectiveness evaluation framework that resolves many subjective dilemmas of traditional user-centred evaluation approaches. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A conversational framework for individual learning applied to the ‘Learning Organisation’ and the ‘Learning Society’

Abstract: The paper sets out to test whether our understanding of the individual learning can be used to help us understand better the concepts of ‘the learning organisation’ and ‘the learning society’. It begins with a systems-oriented description of one model for the learning individual, the ‘conversational framework’, and extends Laurillard's earlier framework to one that makes explicit the learner's internal conversation. This extended framework is then reinterpreted for the university as a learning organisation. If the distinctive features of the conversational framework describe the minimal components and relations necessary for learning, to what extent can we find this structure mirrored in the way a university works? The application of the framework exposes the potential or missing links. The same argument is then extended to the higher education (HE) sector as a whole, and finally to ‘the learning society’. In the context of the HE sector, the analysis demonstrates the need for an ‘institute for learning and teaching in HE’ such as that proposed by the Dearing Committee in the UK. In the context of the wider society, it shows how universities must play their role in enabling it to be a ‘learning society’. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Punctuated equilibrium: reconciling theory of revolutionary and incremental change

Abstract: Using Simon's concept of nested hierarchies, this paper advances a new synthesis for understanding how and why the discontinuous change processes of punctuated equilibrium may occur in socio-economic settings. A. key concept is the nested, multilevel organization of 'deep structure', the order in a system. This includes culture, technology, operating routines, control systems, organizational structure, resources and distributions of power. Using a modified evolutionary process, change is triggered when a disturbance disconfigures one or more levels of the system's deep structure. New variations of deep structure, constrained by more fundamental levels, emerge as deep structure reconfigures. The variations are sorted through competitive selection and other non-competitive processes. The variations are retained as part of the reconfigured deep structure. The concept of a nested, multi-level deep structure explains a continuum of change. Incremental change occurs when only the more marginal levels of deep structure are affected. Revolutionary change occurs when the fundamental levels of deep structure reconfigure, as do all more marginal levels nested within them. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The problematique: evolution of an idea

Abstract: A problematique is a graphical portrayal—a structural model—of relationships among members of a set of problems It is a product of a group process whose design benefits from the writings of Aristotle, Abelard, Leibniz, DeMorgan, CS Peirce, and Harary Contemporary scholars first conceived the idea of the problematique simply as a name for the array of problems confronting the world It was then extended to represent a structural portrayal applicable to specific problematic situations Having been tested in many such situations, it can now be viewed as a standard format of wide utility in many applications An appropriate perspective on this type of structure arises from comprehending the history of its evolution Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Re‐creating universities for ‘beyond the stable state’: from ‘Dearingesque’ systematic control to post‐Dearing systemic learning and inquiry

Abstract: This paper considers the limitations (excluding funding) of the UK Dearing Report and likely influences of what might be considered ‘Dearingesque proposals’, increasingly invoked throughout the world as ‘solutions’ to the challenges of ‘the learning society’. It is concerned with emphases of the report on structural solutions to complex problems that are by no means structural in nature. The tendency is to ‘order the mess’, through increased standardisation, specification of outcomes and centralised control. Implementation of ‘Dearingesque proposals’ are likely to ossify traditional academic status hierarchies, subject boundaries, and the normative criteria by which teaching and learning quality and research tend to be judged. This trend will work against academics, and professional groups who recognise the need to build capacity for ‘second-order change’ and for new kinds of social learning in an essentially ‘unstable state’. It will also discourage the engagement of diversity.It is argued that innovation, development and partnership can only come from systemic learning and inquiry from ‘within the mess’. Working with, rather than controlling, this epistemological diversity and richness could lead to the visualisation and enactment of alternative epistemological and ethical positions by government, employers and academics, working in partnership. Systemic learning and inquiry could lead to new understandings of ‘responsiveness’ and quality in higher education for the millennium, that could enhance the capacity of society to work with and learn from challenges of complexity, change and systemicity. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Systems thinking in higher education: learning comes to focus

Abstract: The question I contemplate in this paper is: What does systems thinking tell us about how to provide for learning and human development? As a researcher, teacher, and author I have addressed this question throughout my professional life. We discussed this question at the July '97 International Seminar in Systems Thinking in Higher Education at the Open University. This paper is an elaboration of my contribution to the seminar. In Part One, I tell the story of a hypothetical conversation between a subject-matter professor and a systems thinker. It highlights the difference between an instructional-focused and learning-focused approach to education. In Part Two, I elaborate this difference from a systems perspective. In Part Three, I present an epistemology, which brings learning into focus. And, in Part Four, I introduce an image of a systems complex that manifests a shift from instructional to learning focused education. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evolution of farming systems and system philosophy

Abstract: Farming systems (FSs), and ways of thinking about them, evolved in space and time. Rapid evolution took place in the last two decades when crop and livestock yields increased, together with concerns about their socio-economic and biophysical tradeoffs. The application of farming systems research (FSR) to agricultural development was a response to problems arising from a predominantly reductionist approach to research and a cornucopian view of external inputs. Modern technologies were either not welcome or caused unexpected negative trade-offs. This paper reviews definitions and forms of FSR and the need for evolution in thinking about agricultural development. Application of thermodynamic theory (TDT)I to the study of farming systems influences discussion between cornucopians and conservationists, and between reductionist and holistic approaches to research. There is a need to recognize context (suitability of technology), and to pay more attention to relations within systems (system dynamics) and to defining criteria for sustainability. The paper links biophysical and socio-economic processes, gives a physical background for the anthropomorphic concepts of waste, and reviews aspects of objectivism and constructivism. It is argued that FSR can only advance if the full portent of these issues is considered in thinking about development of FSs. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Non‐equilibrium thermodynamic approach to the change in political systems

Abstract: The purpose of this research is to develop a theoretical framework for the study of the dynamics of the political system on the basis of non-equilibrium thermodynamics and its entropy function. In thermodynamics, entropy has been regarded as a function of system change. An open system in a state of non-equilibrium tends to lead to a new dynamic state of complexity. In such a transition, the system acquires new energy to produce entropy and new possibilities for the system's behaviour. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics leads to a theory of system self-organization. Dissipative structures may trigger transitional processes that lead to higher order and complexity. This non-equilibrium thermodynamics approach can provide a powerful tool for analysing transitions of a political system over time. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The use of soft systems methodology in emancipatory development

Abstract: This paper discusses the use of Checkland's soft systems methodology with the broader framework of participative systemic action research. It builds on an earlier critique of SSM, discussing particularly its use as a tool for participation and emancipation: the paper discusses how SSM was used as a method to help successfully achieve emancipatory development in a rural area in the Philippines. Important emergent features that ensured such success for SSM were (a) the role of the facilitator and the process of facilitation, (b) the commitment to learning with and from all participants, (c) the contextualization of the SSM, and (d) a commitment to authentic participation of all stakeholders. Mention is also made of the different issues concerning the implementation of agreed change in situations where there are no clear power hierarchies. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The problem of comparison in soft systems methodology

Abstract: The core idea in soft systems methodology is to generate logical systems models that are thought to be relevant to a problem situation and then to compare the model and situation in order to structure a debate about change. It is demonstrated in this paper that comparison is problematic both in theory and practice. A learning-based stream of research is described in which three concepts, termed expectation, desirability and importance (EDI), are identified to help explain the nature of comparison. The learning gained from applying these concepts in order to structure practice is discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An application of SSM in the on‐farm labour situation in the New Zealand dairy industry

Abstract: The on-farm labour situation is a matter of concern to the New Zealand dairy industry. Structural and demographic changes in the industry have contributed to a situation in which employers are unable to attract or retain the number and type of employees they seek. Perceptions of the issue, the nature and extent of the problem, and the likely means to address it vary among the people involved. Although used to a limited extent in New Zealand, soft systems methodology (SSM) was developed to deal with complex problem situations that are ill structured and defined differently by people in the situation. SSM was used in the on-farm labour situation in the dairy industry to structure the problem situation and to provide a number of relevant systems models for an industry group to debate and learn about the situation. This paper reports on the process and outcomes of the inquiry to date. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Soft issues in IS projects: lessons from an SME case study

Abstract: The vast majority of the reported case studies of the use of soft systems methodology (SSM) concern themselves with large organizations. In this paper we examine a case study concerning the use of SSM in a small to medium enterprise (SME). The key consideration of this paper is that regardless of whether it be used in a small or large organization, by dealing with ‘problematical situations’ as opposed to problems, SSM enables a more thorough investigation of information systems needs to be performed. The political arena in an SME can be just as complex as within a large organization, and therefore SSM is just as appropriate in an SME environment as in a large organization environment. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The future's digital, isn't it? Some experience and forecasts based on the Open University's Technology Foundation Course

Abstract: The Open University has gained considerable experience in the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and similar techniques in distance education. The new media offer a wide range of opportunities for extending the educational experience of learners. In one large-scale application of CMC, involving some 3500 students, students became enthusiastic users of the medium, and regarded it as a major source of motivation. However, it is not clear what other academic benefits they gained from the activity. The strengths and weaknesses of electronic communication as an educational medium and the resulting consequences for universities are examined. It seems clear that while the short-term effects of the medium are relatively small, in the longer term they may entirely reshape the conception of a university. The role of the academic will change, and new forms of literacy will need to be developed. Issues of access and equitability will need to be addressed and learning methods adapted so that the medium gives high added-value. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

World‐views as the emergent property of human value systems

Abstract: Weltanschauung was first used in English by William James in the middle of the nineteenth century. It means literally ‘world-perception’ and is often substituted by the more pronounceable term world-view. It is used by systems theorists to designate a particular stance or premise about the way we conceptualize our surroundings. It significantly affects our interpretation of situations but the essence of Weltanschauung appears insufficiently explored in systems theory. This paper examines the characteristics of personal and organizational value systems. It goes on using soft systems ideas to explore the proposition that world-views are the emergent property of human value systems. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Rich pictures on the path towards systemic being

Abstract: Referring both to both soft systems methodology and symbo-construction organizational behaviour approaches, I interpret some of my own rich pictures from a five-year investigation of teaching reform in a university business computing course. I reflect on how the pictures reveal repressed or hidden problems and opportunities on my own self-reflective practice towards becoming what Richard Bowden terms ‘being systemic’. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The role of politics in IS career progression

Abstract: Information systems (IS) training and career opportunities frequently emphasize the need for a range of skills. This paper examines the role of politics in the promotion of IS professionals. Most studies take a management perspective when looking at the skills required of employees. In this study, the views of the employees are considered. A systems view is taken which allows a holistic interpretation of the complex organizational reality and which acknowledges emergent properties. The case study of an IS department is examined through multiple interpretations using a dialectical hermeneutics approach. The main difference from previous studies is the emphasis in career progression given to the role of politics by IS practitioners. Politics in careers manifests itself in both legitimate and undesirable ways. These include negotiation and persuasion, manoeuvring for a better position, systems of favours and developing strategic friendships. A systems perspective is useful in helping the employee understand the nature of the situation he/she is faced with and in making a decision on the right course of action to take. Politics is usually seen as a very informal aspect of organizational life. Hence, its management, particularly of the less desirable aspects, is difficult and rarely done well. Managers need to be aware of what is happening in their organization and manage the potentially undesirable aspects of political activity. They can do this by reducing uncertainty attached to organizational procedures, rules of conduct and ethical behaviour in the workplace. In the case of careers, they can manage job assignments better and set up and manage effective job assessment procedures. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An information typology for the understanding of social systems

Abstract: It is argued that we can improve our understanding of social systems by focusing on their informational processes. Recent developments, primarily in evolutionary biology, cybernetics and systems theory, suggest that informational processes are of at least two, and probably three, different types; and that the interaction of these types can be seen as a basis for the self-construction of social systems. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Business strategies for sustainable profits: systems thinking in practice

Abstract: Since the 1960s, business and environmental advocates have battled over how to apportion nature's resources. Should they be used to drive business growth, or protected to safeguard the environment? There is an alternative to this win–lose approach: the application of systems principles to business and management. By taking a systems approach to business and environment, conflict can be resolved to the benefit of both. One key is to consider business as a system. A growing number of chief executives are viewing their companies in this way, not just as an environmental step, but as a strategy for enhancing total business performance. The result is not only a reduction in environmental impacts, but an increase in profits and performance as well. Bill Coors of Coors Brewing believes that the businesses of the past were structured like machines, according to a linear ‘open loop’ model that wasted resources, taking them from nature, cycling them through the economy, and discarding them into air, water, and land. This old business model is much like the food chain once emphasized in biology. Coors developed his company, Coors Brewing, using a ‘closed loop’ model that more closely resembles a food web. In this model, feedback loops transmit environmental costs back to the company, triggering innovations that not only reduce waste, but also trigger new profit centers. Coors used his insights to leverage a traditional industrial business—a mass-market brewery—into a diverse high-technology spin-off, ACX Technologies, whose profits are based more on design than on the consumption of resources. Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, has taken this concept a step further. In Moore's view, by applying the concept of value by design, microchips and other products can be created that provide even greater economic value using even fewer resources. The microchip is his example. It is made of simple, abundant materials, which serve as a platform for design. The chip's value is a function of the design inscribed on it, not the resources in it. Based on this, ‘Moore's law’ suggests that the number of transistors on a microchip will double every 2 years. Moore's law suggests an even more promising opportunity: that throughout the economy businesses of all types can create huge increases in economic value, while consuming fewer physical resources. They can profit not by consumption, but by design. Tachi Kiuchi, founding CEO of Mitsubishi Electric America, believes that resource efficiency can be boosted by a factor of four or more, if businesses can be structured not like machines, but like living systems. He suggests principles and practices through which businesses can become ‘as creative and innovative as the rainforest’. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The sociology of prison and the self‐referential approach to prison organization and to correctional reforms

Abstract: This article is an attempt to answer the question whether prison constitutes an autopoietic system by showing how it differs from the external environment. For this purpose, and on the basis of both American and European research, the prison is examined internally as a microsociety and externally in its relation to the wider social context. The formation of subcultural groups is analysed, as well as the failure to reform penal institutions over recent decades by focusing on the functions which the prison system fulfils. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Redefining the role of the practitioner in critical systems methodologies

Abstract: In this paper we suggest that recent approaches to dealing with complexity within the systems paradigm fail to deal adequately with the influence of the practitioner in the execution of a methodological inquiry. This will be explored through a brief critique of Total Systems Intervention (TSI). In constructing our argument we will identify the practitioner, the situation under study and the theory informing the practitioner as the three components of methodology construction. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.