Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 2000"
TL;DR: In the Society for General Systems Research (SGS) as discussed by the authors, a meta-level language and theory in which the problems of many different disciplines could be expressed and solved, and it was hoped that doing this would help to promote the unity of science.
Abstract: Although the history of thought reveals a number of holistic thinkers — Aristotle, Marx, Husserl among them— it was only in the 1950s that any version of holistic thinking became institutionalized. The kind of holistic thinking which then came to the fore, and was the concern of a newly created organization, was that which makes explicit use of the concept of ‘system’, and today it is ‘systems thinking’ in its various forms which would be taken to be the very paradigm of thinking holistically. In 1954, as recounted in Chapter 3 of Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, only one kind of systems thinking was on the table: the development of a mathematically expressed general theory of systems. It was supposed that this would provide a meta-level language and theory in which the problems of many different disciplines could be expressed and solved; and it was hoped that doing this would help to promote the unity of science. These were the aspirations of the pioneers, but looking back from 1999we can see that the project has not succeeded. The literature contains very little of the kind of outcomes anticipated by the founders of the Society for General Systems Research; and scholars in the many subject areas towhich a holistic approach is relevant have been understandably reluctant to see their pet subject as simply one more example of some broader ‘general system’!
1,133 citations
TL;DR: In his critique of Luhmann's sociology, Habermas (1987) argued that individuation and socialization are possible on the basis of linguistic structures and touched the blind spot of sociological systems theory as a meta-biology.
Abstract: In his critique of Luhmann's sociology, Habermas (1987) argued that individuation and socialization are possible on the basis of linguistic structures. This critique touches the blind spot of sociological systems theory as a meta-biology. Whereas the paradigm shift from action theory towards communication theory was fully reflected in Luhmann's sociology, the difference between the self-organization of social systems and the autopoiesis of biological systems remained underspecified. Social systems allow for communication about observations from within the system and/or from another perspective. Observers are able to participate both in the variation and in the selection; Giddens (1976) introduced in this context the metaphor of a ‘double hermeneutics’. Through language the distinction between uncertainty and meaningful information is communicated reflexively, and the consequent codification may be changed without becoming confused. The implied communicative competences can be specified from the perspective of communication theory. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
202 citations
TL;DR: The paper concludes that such confusions have arisen partially because of limited communication at the theoretical level from within the system dynamics community but also because of imperfect command of the available literature on the part of external commentators.
Abstract: This paper explores the criticism that system dynamics is a ‘hard’ or ‘deterministic’ systems approach. This criticism is seen to have four interpretations and each is addressed from the perspectives of social theory and systems science. Firstly, system dynamics is shown to offer not prophecies but Popperian predictions. Secondly, it is shown to involve the view that system structure only partially, not fully, determines human behaviour. Thirdly, the field's assumptions are shown not to constitute a grand content theory—though its structural theory and its attachment to the notion of causality in social systems are acknowledged. Finally, system dynamics is shown to be significantly different from systems engineering. The paper concludes that such confusions have arisen partially because of limited communication at the theoretical level from within the system dynamics community but also because of imperfect command of the available literature on the part of external commentators. Improved communication on theoretical issues is encouraged, though it is observed that system dynamics will continue to justify its assumptions primarily from the point of view of practical problem solving. The answer to the question in the paper's title is therefore: on balance, no.
164 citations
TL;DR: It is pointed out that systems science is a necessity to deal with the overwhelming systems complexity in the information era of the next century.
Abstract: Systems science has been considered the basis for information systems. A wealth of research in information systems in the framework of systems science has produced an astonishing array of theoretical results and empirical insights, and a large suite of tools and methods. This paper aims at reviewing the contribution of systems science to information systems research and tracing how concepts and findings in systems science have been applied, extended and refined in information systems research. As we approach the end of twentieth century, this paper points out that systems science is a necessity to deal with the overwhelming systems complexity in the information era of the next century. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
121 citations
TL;DR: The laws of nature are abstractions of the regularities of our operation as living systems that we distinguish as we explain our experiences with the coherences of our experiences.
Abstract: We human beings live in the explanations of our existence as living beings. These explanations of our existence include what we call the ‘laws of nature’. Though we name them laws, we cannot claim that they have an existence independent of us. We human beings do not exist in nature, nature arises with us, and we ourselves arise with it. In this dynamic co-arising, we explain ourselves and our circumstances while operating as observers. The laws of nature are abstractions of the regularities of our operation as living systems that we distinguish as we explain our experiences with the coherences of our experiences. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
93 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the emerging trends in the manufacturing industry have been identified and explained for the first time, using the systems concept, and an integrated information systems approach based on the general systems concept has been suggested to meet the challenge derived from the new trends.
Abstract: In this paper, the emerging trends in the manufacturing industry have been identified and explained for the first time, using the systems concept. The theme of the trends is moving from parts to wholes: from functional area optimization to manufacturing capability building, from sequential production to parallel production, and from economies of scale to economies of scope. All these changes have showed that manufacturing managers are more interested in considering manufacturing tasks as the responsibility of an entire organization rather than as the functional responsibility of a firm. An integrated information systems approach based on the general systems concept has been suggested to meet the challenge derived from the new trends. The integrated manufacturing information systems focuses on orchestrating objectives, actions and tasks of an entire organization to build up competitive manufacturing capabilities, achieve manufacturing excellence, and sustain a reasonable level of growth. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
61 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed that the proper context for a basic unifying theory of evolution for the emerging debate on the similarities and differences between biotic evolution and evolutionary algorithms is systems science.
Abstract: Darwinian evolution and genetics have spawned a class of computational methods called evolutionary algorithms, and in particular, genetic algorithms. These evolutionary strategies provide new opportunities and challenges with ever-increasing applications in industry. In this paper, we propose that the proper context for a basic unifying theory of evolution for the emerging debate on the similarities and differences between biotic evolution and evolutionary algorithms is systems science. Recent changes in technology, coupled with developments in the field of artificial intelligence, promote the growth of enabling technologies, such as intelligent systems, in which we integrate genetic algorithms. Genetic algorithms are integrated with other artificial intelligence tools using a cooperating intelligent subsystem, which is integrated into the information systems of the organization. A portfolio of examples illustrating the evolving and expanding applications of genetic algorithms is included, as well as our computational experience with several commercially available genetic algorithm software. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
47 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose an alternative systemic framework for evaluating the results of conflicts, which is illustrated by making reference to a severe conflict, the Colombian guerrilla war, which serves to show the advantages of using the proposed framework instead of more traditional models.
Abstract: This paper aims to challenge reductionist mental models widely used to evaluate the effects of conflicts or disputes. These models are frequently used intuitively by people, or recommended in the dispute resolution literature in fields such as negotiation or mediation. It is argued that they harm people's ability to deal effectively with conflicts and learn from them. The authors propose an alternative systemic framework for evaluating the results of conflicts, which is illustrated by making reference to a severe conflict, the Colombian guerrilla war. This case serves to show the advantages of using the proposed framework instead of more traditional models. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
46 citations
TL;DR: The role of the machine metaphor in science goes back to Descartes as discussed by the authors, who realized that this was a poorly posed question and that when rephrased the question had an earthshaking answer.
Abstract: The question ‘What is life?’ has been asked by many over the years. Robert Rosen realized that this was a poorly posed question and that when rephrased the question had an earthshaking answer. This is the subject of this review. We will examine the entire epistemological basis for modern science and its grounding in reductionism and the machine metaphor. The role of the machine metaphor in science goes back to Descartes. Newton and those who followed built it into what has become modern science. The success of this worldview was so great that it became as strong as any of the other belief structures we might identify as religions.
Physics is said to deal with the fundamental laws of nature. Chemistry and biology were to use these laws to deal with specific applications of the general laws of physics. This world of the machine is a ‘simple’ world inhabited by simple machines or mechanisms. What if the objects in chemistry and biology are not that simple? Then we must reduce them to subunits that are. Robert Rosen discovered that when the reduction is performed something real and necessary is lost in a way that made it unrecoverable. It isn't the atoms and molecules that are at the hard core of reality, it is the relations between them and the relations between them and things called processes which are at the core of the real world. From this perspective the answer is a very easy one to obtain. When the causal relations are examined, the organism stands apart from the machine by being closed to efficient cause. It is its own ‘builder’. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
44 citations
TL;DR: A systems-based approach, WSR (wuli–shili–renli), for information systems development (ISD), which draws upon traditional Oriental thinking and contemporary practice in that social–cultural setting and pushes forward a challenge to ISD researchers.
Abstract: This paper presents a systems-based approach, WSR (wuli–shili–renli), for information systems development (ISD), which draws upon traditional Oriental thinking and contemporary practice in that social–cultural setting. As a philosophical framework, WSR contends four principles, namely, seeing ISD as a differentiable whole, treating ISD methods as complementary opposites, conducting ISD as a spiral bubble-management process, and searching for ISD methodologies in a form not independent from that of general management approaches. As a methodology, WSR contains structured yet flexible stages which are underpinned by a common logic derived from that of general problem-solving methodologies. WSR pushes forward a challenge to ISD researchers: to develop methodologies in a form familiar to management and users on the one hand, and to incorporate the best aspects of various methods on the other. A practical project is deployed to illustrate the working of WSR. For the purpose of promoting mutual learning, the paper incorporates current debates and new developments in both the East and the West regarding research and practice in IS (information systems) and ISD. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
41 citations
TL;DR: This paper considers the changing policy-making context and how this is increasing the complexity of policymaking and offers simulation gaming as a way of rapidly developing policy-makers' ability to appreciate wholes and gain a systems awareness of the issues surrounding policies.
Abstract: This paper considers the changing policy-making context and how this is increasing the complexity of policymaking. It argues that a useful way of dealing with this problem is the development of the ability of policy-makers to appreciate wholes and gain a systems awareness of the issues surrounding policies. It offers simulation gaming as a way of rapidly developing this ability. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, a non-reductionistic and transdisciplinary view on human knowing is proposed, which is based on a view of knowledge seen as self-organized signification systems in social practice.
Abstract: The paper attempts to develop a non-reductionistic and transdisciplinary view on human knowing in the light of the growing development of transdisciplinary practices and sciences. Medicine is one of the oldest; ecology and information science are some of the newer examples of radical transdisciplinarity. I discuss the lack of a recognized place and value of phenomenological knowledge in relation to the general mechanistic scientific ontology that still seems to be the only generally accepted background for the transdisciplinary areas to build on. Ontologically we cannot say much about reality except that it is very complex and dynamic, but still has structures and causal relations of a certain stability, which can be modelled mathematically. We further have to admit that there are aspects of reality that are beyond measuring. I suggest that the dualistic idea of transcendental and eternal mathematical natural laws and an algorithmic programme behind intelligence and language is rejected for its lack of ability to include the phenomenological and existential perspective of science and the practical knowledge beyond words. Instead I am promoting an epistemology, which sees science as only one aspect of our knowledge and sees human knowledge as going beyond language. An opening for the phenomenological aspect is then created in our modern scientistic and mechanistic metaphysics. I suggest a view of knowledge seen as self-organized signification systems based on metaphysical frameworks in social practice. The interpretation of sign in a systematized knowledge framework is actually where the medical sciences started in the classical Greek tradition of Hippocrates. This non-reductionistic framework promises to open towards a non-Cartesian transdisciplinary understanding of the basis for the generation and communication of knowledge in society without giving up what we have gained through the rigour and the methods of the sciences and the logic of philosophical analysis. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The five commitments of critical systems thinking can be treated as criteria to be fulfilled by any methodology for solving complex societal problems as discussed by the authors, and the definition of such a set of criteria is attempted in this paper using the extensive literature on the science of complexity.
Abstract: The five commitments of critical systems thinking can be treated as criteria to be fulfilled by any methodology for societal problem solving. However, since present-day societal problems are complex, in establishing a set of criteria to be satisfied by any methodology proposed for complex societal problem solving reference needs to be made to the theory of complex systems. Together with the five commitments of critical systems thinking, this will form the criteria set to be satisfied by any methodology or inquiry system designed for complex societal problem solving. The definition of such a set of criteria is attempted in this paper using the extensive literature on the science of complexity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The paper argues and illustrates that there is a need for a complementary type of soft system in IS development, it offers a specific proposal for how to include interaction systems in SSM, and it outlines the implications of doing so for soft systems thinking and practice.
Abstract: The penetration of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) into information systems (IS) development is—despite several initiatives—rather limited as compared to how innovative and effective SSM has proven as an approach to organizational learning in general. This paper investigates the traditional soft systems concept as a key barrier that needs to be transcended to further develop SSM in the context of IS development.All kinds of human activities are in SSM viewed as transformations from one domain (the input) to another domain (the output). This perspective reflects classical flow-oriented information systems based on batch-processing technology while ignoring the highly interactive nature of contemporary information systems. The paper argues and illustrates that there is a need for a complementary type of soft system in IS development, it offers a specific proposal for how to include interaction systems in SSM, and it outlines the implications of doing so for soft systems thinking and practice. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of human error within complex technical systems is explored and particular emphasis is placed upon the dynamics of latent errors within the management of such systems, while there are important cognitive processes at work within accident causation, attention needs to be moved away from the level of the operator to the wider managerial and social frameworks within which individuals work.
Abstract: This paper attempts to explore the human factors and systems dynamics of human–machine interaction by reference to the Kegworth aircraft accident. The paper seeks to move beyond the more traditional human factors literature to include research findings from both systems research and crisis management in an attempt to examine the relationships between active and latent failures. The role of human error within complex technical systems is explored and particular emphasis is placed upon the dynamics of latent errors within the management of such systems. The main thesis developed here is that, while there are important cognitive processes at work within accident causation, attention needs to be moved away from the level of the operator to the wider managerial and social frameworks within which individuals work. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: This study concludes that systems scientists have made important contributions to the development of foundational concepts, implementation, user interface, model management and group decision support systems.
Abstract: This is a comprehensive study that, by means of an empirical assessment of the decision support systems (DSS) literature over the past 23 years (1971–1993), systematically identifies the DSS reference disciplines and traces how concepts and findings by systems researchers have been picked up by DSS researchers to be applied, extended and refined in the development of DSS research subspecialties
Cluster analysis was applied to an author cocitation frequency matrix derived from a comprehensive database of the DSS literature to uncover 12 clusters consisting of six major areas of DSS research (foundations, group DSS, model management, user interfaces, implementation and multicriteria DSS) and six contributing disciplines (multiple-criteria, decision-making, cognitive science organization science, artificial intelligence, group decision-making and systems science) This study concludes that systems scientists have made important contributions to the development of foundational concepts, implementation, user interface, model management and group decision support systems Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
TL;DR: In this article, the dynamics of a political system can be understood in terms of phase transitions of a dissipative system's exchange of material, energy and information with its environment in the context of complex systems theory.
Abstract: In systems theory the concepts of system and complexity are closely related. Self-organization implies the maintenance of a definite level of organization or the improvement of the systems. The dynamics of a political system can be understood in terms of phase transitions of a dissipative system's exchange of material, energy and information with its environment in terms of complex systems theory. The institutions of the political systems are a dissipative structure which may emerge in a particular interval of threshold conditions in the macroscopic evolutionary process of political systems. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the results of a virtual dialogue about the practice and ethics of design, between statements acting as surrogates for their authors, in which each statement was compared on a one-to-one basis to every other standard.
Abstract: This chapter presents the results of a virtual dialogue about the practice and ethics of design. The dialogue was between statements acting as surrogates for their authors. The virtual conversations were accomplished through a modified method of paired comparisons. Each statement was, in effect, compared on a one-to-one basis to every other standard (cf. Bausch, 1999, 1999a).
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe a conversation model appropriated from Jean Francois Lyotard's (1988) work The Differend and provide heuristic support for the practice of generative conversations aimed at opening the space necessary to create new knowledge within organizations.
Abstract: In this paper I describe a conversation model appropriated from Jean Francois Lyotard's (1988) work The Differend. The heuristics provided aim to support generative conversations within knowledge organizations. Generative conversations occur when different bodies of knowledge meet and develop new knowledge. Conversation is a process in which organizationally structured bodies of knowledge meet the individual subject. This paper argues that the majority of organizational conversations are regulative. They limit what can be spoken or written by any subject. Generative conversation is creative and encourages a linking of concepts and ideas that enables the emergence of new themes. Lyotard's (1984 and 1988) work provides a model of discourse (conversation) that specifically addresses the linking of phrases by participants. Building on this work this paper provides heuristic support for the practice of generative conversations aimed at opening the space necessary to create new knowledge within organizations. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: This paper reviewed the criticisms of current reform efforts; definitions of educational culture, moral purpose, and change processes; and forms of conversation, and concluded by developing the premise that disciplined conversation, especially of a moral nature, is the critical variable in successful change.
Abstract: This paper briefly reviews the criticisms of current reform efforts; definitions of educational culture, moral purpose, and change processes; and forms of conversation. Such a discourse naturally concludes by developing the premise that disciplined conversation, especially of a moral nature, is the critical variable in successful change. Recommendations are given for professional development within a systemic context that will provide organizational and procedural continuity, and facilitate stakeholder development. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the relationship between collective action and the payoff function of the Prisoners' Dilemma game and showed that the latter has more degrees of freedom than the former.
Abstract: Quantitative relationships are established between the production function of collective action and the payoff functions of the n-person Prisoners' Dilemma game. It is shown that the latter have more degrees of freedom than the former; therefore, it is desirable to investigate collective actions in terms of the Prisoners' Dilemma game. The special cases of S-shaped, decelerating (concave), accelerating (convex), and linear production functions are investigated. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: A typology is a classification system by type, that is, by the formal structure of a study, where generic research designs are cross-classified by two dimensions: the researcher's assumptions about time and space and the object of the idea.
Abstract: A typology is a classification system by type, that is, by the formal structure of a study. In this typology a distinction is drawn between a generic research design and a methodology. The former—the generic research design—refers to the over-arching formal plan for achieving specified disciplinary goals. The latter—the methodology—refers integratively to: (a) the data-generating processes; and (b) the datal reduction procedures for discerning datal patterns.
In this typology, generic research designs are cross-classified by two dimensions: (a) the researcher's assumptions about time and space; (b) the researcher's topics of study—(1) the idea; and (2) the object of the idea: the unit set and the class or set.
There are 10 generic research designs: (1) the review of research; (2) the conceptual book review; (3) the philosophical study; (4) the simulation; (5) history; (6) the case study; (7) the post hoc analysis; (8) the survey; (9) the experiment; (10) the meta-analysis. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.