Showing papers in "Teachers College Record in 2006"

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge

Abstract: Research in the area of educational technology has often been critiqued for a lack of theoretical grounding. In this article we propose a conceptual framework for educational technology by building on Shulman’s formulation of ‘‘pedagogical content knowledge’’ and extend it to the phenomenon of teachers integrating technology into their pedagogy. This framework is the result of 5 years of work on a program of research focused on teacher professional development and faculty development in higher education. It attempts to capture some of the essential qualities of teacher knowledge required for technology integration in teaching, while addressing the complex, multifaceted, and situated nature of this knowledge. We argue, briefly, that thoughtful pedagogical uses of technology require the development of a complex, situated form of knowledge that we call Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). In doing so, we posit the complex roles of, and interplay among, three main components of learning environments: content, pedagogy, and technology. We argue that this model has much to offer to discussions of technology integration at multiple levels: theoretical, pedagogical, and methodological. In this article, we describe the theory behind our framework, provide examples of our teaching approach based upon the framework, and illustrate the methodological contributions that have resulted from this work.

Our Impoverished View of Educational Research.

Abstract: This analysis is about the role of poverty in school reform. Data from a number of sources are used to make five points. First, that poverty in the United States is greater and of longer duration than in other rich nations. Second, that poverty, particularly among urban minorities, is associated with academic performance that is well below international means on a number of different international assessments. Scores of poor students are also considerably below the scores achieved by white middle-class American students. Third, that poverty restricts the expression of genetic talent at the lower end of the socioeconomic scale. Among the lowest social classes environmental factors, particularly family and neighborhood influences, not genetics, is strongly associated with academic performance. Among middle-class students it is genetic factors, not family and neighborhood factors, that most influences academic performance. Fourth, compared to middle-class children, severe medical problems affect impoverished youth. This limits their school achievement as well as their life chances. Data on the negative effect of impoverished neighborhoods on the youth who reside there is also presented. Fifth, and of greatest interest, is that small reductions in family poverty lead to increases in positive school behavior and better academic performance. It is argued that poverty places severe limits on what can be accomplished through school reform efforts, particularly those associated with the federal No Child Left Behind law. The data presented in this study suggest that the most powerful policy for improving our nations’ school achievement is a reduction in family and youth poverty. Over the last three years I have co-authored three reports about the effects of high-stakes testing on curriculum, instruction, school personnel, and student achievement (Amrein & Berliner, 2002; Nichols & Berliner, 2005; Nichols, Glass & Berliner, 2006). They were all depressing. My co-authors and I found high-stakes testing programs in most states ineffective in achieving their intended purposes, and causing severe unintended negative effects, as well. We believe that the federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) law is a near perfect case of political spectacle (Smith, 2004), much more theater than substance. Our collectively gloomy conclusions led me to wonder what would really improve the schools that are not now succeeding,

The Limits of Master Narratives in History Textbooks: An Analysis of Representations of Martin Luther King, Jr.

Abstract: In this study, I argue that American history textbooks present discrete, heroic, onedimensional, and neatly packaged master narratives that deny students a complex, realistic, and rich understanding of people and events in American history. In making this argument, I examine the master narratives of Martin Luther King, Jr., in high school history textbooks and show how textbooks present prescribed, oversimplified, and uncontroversial narratives of King that obscure important elements in King’s life and thought. Such master narratives, I contend, permeate most history textbooks and deny students critical lenses through which to examine, analyze, and interpret social issues today. The article concludes with suggestions about how teachers might begin to address the current problem of master narratives and offer alternative approaches to presenting U.S. history.

From Coherence in Theory to Coherence in Practice

Abstract: Historically, one of the central concerns that has plagued the field of teacher education is the observation that fragmentation characterizes the experience of learning to teach. Too often, university-based teacher education programs consist of a set of disconnected individual courses; separate clinical work from coursework; and lack a vision of teaching and learning. Therefore, some teacher educators have argued that creating structurally and conceptually coherent programs will result in more powerful learning for prospective teachers. Yet, although empirical work on such programs is growing, there is little research on the nature of coherence and on how it might develop. To that end, this article documents one teacher education program’s efforts to become more coherent, focusing on the ways in which the program tries to become more coherent and on the challenges of coherence. The article concludes with implications for teacher education program design and evaluation, with a focus on the power, complexity, and problems of coherence.

African American Males in Education: Endangered or Ignored?

Abstract: African American males are often categorized as a population at-risk in education (Bailey & Moore, 2004; Davis, 2003; Moore, 2000). In many social domains of American society, they hold a peculiar but uncertain status (Austin, 1996). Endangered, uneducable, dysfunctional, and dangerous are many of the terms often used to characterize African American males (Gibbs, 1988; Majors & Billson, 1992; Parham & McDavis, 1987). Such terms often evoke unsettling emotions and perpetuate negative stereotypes. Nevertheless, it is apparent, based on the dismal national statistics on unemployment, education, incarceration, and mental and physical health, that African American males face numerous challenges in American society (Hoffman, Llagas, & Synder, 2003). It is likely that the aforementioned depictions of African American males can negatively impact the perceived ability and subsequent behavior of African American males (Bailey & Moore, 2004; Moore, 2000; Moore & Herndon, 2003) and impede their pursuit of the ‘‘American Dream.’’ Therefore, it is not surprising that African American males often experience difficulty in social domains, such as education (Jackson, 2003; Jackson & Crawley, 2003; Moore, Flowers, Guion, Zhang, & Staten, 2004; Moore, Madison-Colmore, & Smith, 2003; Nogurea, 2003). Throughout the educational pipeline—elementary, secondary, and postsecondary—in the United States, many African American males lag behind both their African American female and White male counterparts (Ferguson, 2003; Hrabowski, Maton, & Grief, 1998; Polite & Davis, 1999). They are often more likely than any other group to be suspended or expelled from school (Meier, Stewart, & England, 1998), to be underrepresented in gifted education programs or advanced placement courses (Grantham, 2004a, 2004b; Hrabowski et al., 1998), to underachieve or disengage academically (Ford, 1996), and to experience the most challenges in higher education settings as both students and professionals (Flowers &

The Special Education Referral and Decision-Making Process for English Language Learners: Child Study Team Meetings and Placement Conferences

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the special education referral and decisionmaking process for English language learners (ELLs), with a focus on Child Study Team (CST) meetings and placement conferences/multidisciplinary team meetings. We wished to learn how school personnel determined if ELLs who were struggling had disabilities, to what extent those involved in the process understood second language acquisition, and whether language issues were considered when determining special education eligibility. We observed CST meetings and placement conferences for 19 students who were considered ELLs when they were referred. Findings revealed that in practice, only cursory attention was given to prereferral strategies. Most students were pushed toward testing, based on an assumption that poor academic performance or behavioral difficulties had their origin within the child and indicated a need for special education. Although some school personnel were quite knowledgeable about language issues, many were not. There was tremendous variation in the quality of what transpired during meetings. These differences were influenced by the intentions, knowledge, skills, and commitment of CSTor multidisciplinary team members. All the factors we describe point to aspects of the process that should be improved.

The Context of Minority Disproportionality: Practitioner Perspectives on Special Education Referral

Abstract: Although there is extensive documentation of minority overrepresentation in special education, knowledge of the factors that create the context within which disproportionality occurs is limited To gain an understanding of the local processes that may contribute to special education disproportionality, we interviewed 66 educators about their perspectives on urban education, special education, available and needed resources, and the specific topics of diversity and disproportionality A number of clear themes emerged Teachers and schools feel unprepared to meet the needs of economically disadvantaged students Classroom behavior appears to be an especially challenging issue for many teachers, and cultural gaps and misunderstandings may intensify behavioral challenges Special education is perceived by many teachers as the only resource available for helping students who are not succeeding Finally, there was a surprising reticence among many respondents to discuss issues of race These results paint a surprisingly complex picture of the factors that may cause and maintain minority disproportionality in special education Together, they suggest that successful remediation efforts will avoid simplistic or linear solutions, increase resources to address learning and behavior problems in general education, and seek methods to use data on racial disparity as a stimulus toward reflection and action

A Qualitative Investigation of African American Males' Career Trajectory in Engineering: Implications for Teachers, School Counselors, and Parents.

Abstract: Using the grounded theory approach, this research investigation, drawing on a larger study, examined the factors that were most instrumental in influencing African American males’ decisions to pursue engineering as an academic major and career choice Using open-ended biographical questionnaires, individual interviews, and focus groups, numerous themes emerged from these data More specifically, the central themes that had major impact on African American males’ career trajectory were (a) strong interests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; (b) strong familial influence and encouragement; (c) strong aptitudes in science and mathematics; (d) meaningful academic experiences and relationships with school personnel; and (e) meaningful enrichment programs, opportunities, and academic experiences Implications, based on the findings of this research, are provided for teachers, school counselors, and parents

The Qualitative Doctoral Dissertation Proposal

Abstract: The dissertation proposal is one of the milestones in the education of -a doctoral candidate. The proposal begins the final long leg of the doctoral journey, and its acceptance is usually met with a well-deserved sense of accomplishment, a sigh of relief, and a tingle of anticipation. It is indeed a personal milestone. However, the development of the, proposal can be a tough slog and stumbles can mark the path, particularly at the start. Some difficulties are inevitable-destinations worth arriving at frequently are not easily approached-but some can be made less arduous, if not avoided. Although the unique path that every dissertation proposal takes means that, especially for those to follow, a map is out of the question, a general sense of the terrain is usually helpful; it helps to know that this is a territory marked by sweaty inclines, serene plateaus, and precipitous drops. The following is a general sketch of the territory from one doctoral supervisor's point of view. It is not a map. My intent is that the sketch will assist doctoral travelers by raising issues that they at least should be aware of in the development of a dissertation proposal. After all, the proposal is a document aimed at convincing a supervisor and committee that the topic is worth researching and the candidate has the wherewithal to carry it out. Nevertheless, what should a proposal include, and why? Although dissertation proposals can vary enormously in form and length, they tend to share some very basic qualities. What are these qualities? And how are they connected to a more general understanding of scholarship?

Can Community Colleges Protect Both Access and Standards? The Problem of Remediation.

Abstract: A large number of community college students have difficulty with postsecondary-level reading, writing, and math demands, necessitating remedial education. A qualitative case study was conducted to investigate state and institutional practices for reme-. diation in 15 community colleges selected for region, size, and urbanicity. The six states in which the colleges were located varied on the level of regulation of institutional remedial policy and were placed on a spectrum ranging from laissez-faire to micromanagement. Most of the states and all the institutions in the study required the assessment of students' academic skills, and the institutions mandated assessment even when the states did not require it. The types of assessment instruments varied, and subjective measures such as institutional tests, course grades, and student selfreport played an important role in placement decisions. The colleges tended to require that low-scoring students attend remedial courses even in the absence of a state mandate. A wide variety of practices were used to determine student readiness to advance in or exit from remediation. Many of the institutions had procedures designed to require remediation early in the student's program, but both assessment and placement mandates appeared to be softened either at the state or institutional level, with the effect of reducing the number of students who were required to enroll in remedial courses. This trend is discussed as a struggle between the access mission of the traditionally open-door community college, and the drive to,protect educational standards.

Motivations to teach : psychometric perspectives across the first semester of teacher education

Abstract: Many studies have investigated preservice teachers’ motivations to teach. However, few studies have (a) used robust measurement methodologies to test the psychometric properties of instruments measuring motivations to teach, (b) attempted to measure changes over time in preservice teachers’ motivations to teach, or (c) attempted to assess the effects that relevant variables such as age or gender may have on temporal changes in motivations to teach. This study sought to address these perceived deficits in the literature. Results indicate that the instrument developed in this study was reliable and valid across two waves of data collection, that preservice teachers’ motivations to teach changed across the course of their first semester of teacher education, and that, in some cases, these changes were related to the age of preservice teachers.

The New Educational Privatization: Educational Contracting and High Stakes Accountability

Abstract: The institutional landscape of K-12 educational contracting is fundamentally changing. Based on industry and district data, this study identifies three distinct shifts in the content and structure of interactions between suppliers of instructional goods and local school systems. These shifts include i) elevation of test-related services and products, ii) increasing emphases on technology-based solutions. and iii) an expanding role for the state in spurring market activity. Drawing on a case study of district practice, the study provides evidence of how broader changes are influencing local contracting activities, and the dilemmas and responses generated by these pressures. The study suggests the need for new conceptual approaches to studying educational privatization that draw on the institutional analysis of organizations and also identifies critical questions for future research.

Psychometric Issues in the ELL Assessment and Special Education Eligibility

Abstract: Assessments in English that are constructed and normed for native English speakers may not provide valid inferences about the achievement of English language learners (ELLs). The linguistic complexity of the test items that are not related to the content of the assessment may increase the measurement error, thus reducing the reliability of the assessment. Language factors that are not relevant to the content being assessed may also be a source of construct-irrelevant variance and negatively impact the validity of the assessment. More important, the results of these tests used as the criteria for identification and classification of ELL students, particularly those at the lower end of the English proficiency spectrum, may be misleading. Caution must be exercised when the results of these tests are used for special education eligibility, particularly in placing ELL students with lower English language proficiency in the learning/reading disability category. This article discusses psychometric issues in the assessment of English language learners and examines the validity of classifying ELL students, with a focus on the possibility of misclassifying ELL students as students with learning disabilities. The policy of including of English language learners (ELLs) and students with disabilities (SD) is not only a necessary for reliable, valid, and fair assessments for all, but it is also a congressionally mandated policy. The recent No Child Left Behind Act (2001), which is the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (the Improving America’s Schools Act), and the amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997 require that all students be included in national and state assessments. The term all in the legislation means every student— including those with disabilities and limited English proficiency. The intent is to provide appropriate assessment based on the same high standards and ensure that all students are part of the indicators used for school accountability (Thurlow & Liu, 2001). Many instructional decisions that will be made could have grave consequences for ELLs if their knowledge and skills are not appropriately assessed. Although the increasing level of attention to the inclusion and assessment of these students is encouraging, not enough work has been

Love and Knowledge: Recovering the Heart of Learning Through Contemplation

Abstract: It is a privilege to add my thoughts to those we have already heard. Jon Kabat Zinn spoke about the unification of knowing through contemplation, reminding us both how available mindfulness is, but also how difficult it can be to bring full awareness to the entirety of life. Marilyn Nelson told us the story of teaching silence to those whose lives take them into war and conflict. We remember the young officer who pretended to be listening to music on his headphones, when really all he was listening to was silence. We have participated in discussions and workshops suggesting that contemplative practices can be an important pedagogical method for ourselves and our students. And we have heard how important it can be to establish peace in ourselves in order to foster and maintain peace in the world. I am only sorry that I have not had the opportunity to speak with all of you, to learn from you what you are doing with contemplation, what your questions are, and what you are planning. To this rich brew of experience and insight, I would like to add another element, one that is extremely difficult to speak of within the academy, yet which I feel is central to its work, namely the relationship between knowledge (which we excel at) and love (which we neglect). First, a personal remark: as a scientist, any attempt to relate knowledge to love feels like an enormous breach of etiquette; it is very bad form, especially so in a public setting such as this. But I have come to conclude that the fear I have felt when broaching this topic was based on particular institutional forms and forces that have ultimately worked against our fundamental human interests. So please join me in setting aside your suspicions and hesitancies, and explore with me the possible relationship between knowledge, love and contemplation. If I were to ask: What should be at the center of our teaching and our students’ learning, what would you respond? Of the many tasks that we as educators take up, what, in your view, is the most important task of all? What is our greatest hope for the young people we teach? In his letters to the young poet Franz Kappus, Rainer Maria Rilke answered unequivocally.

Effects of Attending a 2-Year Institution on African American Males' Academic and Social Integration in the First Year of College

Abstract: This study explored the impact of attending a 2-year (vs. a 4-year) institution on African American male students’ academic and social integration experiences in the first year of college. Descriptive and multivariate analyses of the 1996/1998 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study showed that African American males attending 4-year institutions were more likely to report higher levels of academic and social integration in the first year of college. These findings suggest that student affairs professionals at 2-year institutions should seek to develop appropriate interventions to ensure that African American males are engaging in academic and social integration experiences during their first year of college.

How Language Proficiency Tests Mislead Us About Ability: Implications for English Language Learner Placement in Special Education

Abstract: The authors argue that English language learner (ELL) language assessment policy and poor language tests partly account for ELLs’ disproportionate representation in special education. Previous research indicates that many states routinely assess ELLs’ first language (L1) at initial enrollment and that ELLs identified as limited in both languages have relatively high rates of identification in special education. Two common tests, the Language Assessment Scales–Oral (LAS–O) Espanol and the Idea Proficiency Test I–Oral (IPT) Spanish, are shown to identify 74% and 90%, respectively, Spanish-background ELLs (N5 145) as limited L1 students, whereas a natural language measure found only 2% of participants to have unexpectedly high morphological error rates. Correlations are provided. The authors recommend changes in language testing policies and practices for ELLs.

Teaching Counselors Self-Care through Mindfulness Practices.

Abstract: Few counseling programs directly address the importance of self-care in reducing stress and burnout in their curricula. A course entitled Mind/Body Medicine and the Art of Self-Care was created to address personal and professional growth opportunities through self-care and mindfulness practices (meditation, yoga, qigong, and conscious relaxation exercises). Three methods of evaluating this 15-week 3-credit mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) course for counseling students indicated positive changes for students in learning how to manage stress and improve counseling practice. Students reported positive physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and interpersonal changes and substantial effects on their counseling skills and therapeutic relationships. Information from a focus group, qualitative reports, and quantitative course evaluations were triangulated; all data signified positive student responses to the course, method of teaching, and course instructor. Most students reported intentions of integrating mindfulness practices into their future profession.

Trends of school effects on student achievement: Evidence from NLS:72, HSB:82, and NELS:92

Abstract: The impact of schools on student achievement has been of great interest for the last four decades. This study examines trends of school effects on student achievement employing three national probability samples of high school seniors: NLS:72, HSB:82, and NELS:92. Hierarchical linear models are used to investigate school effects. The findings reveal that the substantial proportion of the variation in student achievement lies within schools not between schools. There is also considerable between school variation in achievement, which becomes larger over time. Schools are more diverse and more segregated in the 1990s than in the 1970s. In addition, school characteristics such as school region, school SES, and certain characteristics of the student body of the school, such as students’ daily attendance, students in college preparatory classes, and high school graduates enrolled in colleges are important predictors of average student achievement. The school predictors explained consistently more than 50% of the variation in average student achievement across surveys. We also find considerable teacher heterogeneity in achievement within schools, which suggests important teacher effects on student achievement. Teacher heterogeneity in student achievement was larger than school heterogeneity, which may indicate that teacher effects have a relatively larger impact on mathematics and science student achievement than school effects.