Showing papers in "Teaching Exceptional Children in 1992"

Curriculum-Based Oral Reading Fluency Norms for Students in Grades 2 through 5.

Abstract: Theteachercol/ects a I-minute timedsampling ofa student's oral reading. Three th ird-grade students are seated across a table from their tea cher, ready to read aloud. Lizzey goes fir st, reading the first paragraph of the story slowly, deliberately, and accurately. Isaac reads the next two paragraphs rapidly but makes several errors, which the teacher corrects. Leah reads the rest of the page smoothly and quickly. She makes one error but immediately corrects herself. As the students read, the teacher monitors their performance. Among the things sh e watch es for is the accuracy with which the children read, as well as their rate. Thi s combination of accuracy and rate is kn own as oral reading fluency (ORF). It is expressed as \"words correct per minute.\" Fluency is an important skill to measure because it is considered a mark of a skilled reader. In general, less fluent readers have poorer comprehension (Carn ine, Silbert, & Kameenui, 1990). Teachers know that it is important to observe both accuracy and rate. When rate alone is considered, a student reading 100words per minute with no errors appears to have the same proficiency as a student reading 100 words per minute with many errors. When only accuracy is considered, two students, both making five errors on a passage, may appear to have the sa1J1e skill level, whereas one may have taken more than 3 minutes to complete the pa ssage while the other read it in less than 1 minute. ORF is superior to both rate and accuracy alone, because it differentiates both kinds of students. Assessments of oral read ing fluency are used by teachers and specialists to make important classroom decisions includ ing the following: • Screening and determining eligibility of studen ts for special programs (Marston, Mirkin, & Deno, 1984). • Setting instructional goals and objectives (Deno, 1986; Deno & Fuchs, 1987). • Plac ing students into instructional group s (Wes son , Vierthaler, & Haubr ich, 1989). • Monitoring academic progress toward achievement of goals and objectives (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). • Making ne cessary adjustments to or changes in instruct ion (Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984). Placement and monitoring decisions require individually referenced information in which a studen t's performance of a skill is measured over time and the results of prior efforts are compared to current performance (Tindal & Marston, 1990). Other decisions such as screening, determining program eligibility, and setting instructional goals and objectives requ ire peer-referenced in formation involving comparisons with comparable peers (Dena, 1985). In these cases, performance standards are necessary so that teachers will know what is an \"average\" or \"typical\" performance to guide their decision making.

Encouraging Peer Supports and Friendships

Abstract: Susan Stainback Amy Wilkinson R esearch has shown that one major problem many students with disabilities face as they are integrated into general education classes is rejection and isolation. They often have little peer support and few, if any, friends (Gottlieb & Leyser, 1981). Both educators and parents who have been involved extensively in integrated schools have noted that the major key to successful integration is the development of informal peer supports and friendships for isolated students (Forest, 1987;PEAKParent Center, 1988;Strully, 1987; York & Vandercook, 1988). Some professionals have gone so far as to state that peer support and friendships are not luxuries, but necessities (GrenotScheyer, Coots, & Falvey, 1990; Stainback & Stainback, 1987, 1988 ; Stocking, Arezzo, & Leavitt, 1980). When a student enters a classroom, such unknowns as schedules, rules, routines, and student-teacher and studentstudent interaction patterns can be intimidating. Classmates can help the student get to know the new environment and make the student feel welcomed, accepted, and secure . In addition, peers can provide encouragement, understanding, and support during stressful times in educational and social activities. Thus, many teachers and parents are beginning to encourage the development of informal peer support and friendships for students who do not have friends in mainstream classes (Perske & Perske, 1988; Ruttiman & Forest, 1987; Stainback & Stainback, 1987; Strully & Strully, 1985; Vandercook, Fleetham, Sinclair, & Tetlie,1988). This article suggests strategies for promoting such interactions. It is based on what classroom teachers have reported to be effective (Grenot-Scheyer et al, 1990; Forest, 1987; PEAKParent Center, 1988) and a review of the re-

Seeking Excellence in Mathematics Education for Student with Mild Disabilities

Abstract: A s we progress toward the 1\"\\.21st century, there is great concern regarding the extent to which the United States will continue to maintain a dominant position in the economic and educational structures of a changing world. One component of th is concern is the mathematics education of our children and the mathematics competencies and proficiencies of our adults. General education is being called upon to increase both the quantity and quality of student 's mathematics performance . There are calls to upgrade the quality of education through national curricula and national assessments; states have implemented standards for minimum competency and are reworking their standards for coursework; local education agencies are striving to increase the quality of student performance whil e the y remain cognizant of state testing requirements; and even the textbooks are beginning to change.

Outcomes are for Special Educators Too: A Thermos Bottle Keeps Things Hot and Cold, But How Does it Know?

Abstract: I t is September now, and everything about your classroom looks promising. You have a new mathematics curriculum and new materials for the first time in several years. The bull etin board ha s taken shape nicely. They even painted your walls over the summer. All in all, you feel great. This yea r you reall y will get a lot done. There is nothing to hold you back from having yo ur best year ever! Just one question : How are you going to know how you did as your last student walks, runs, or rolls out the classroom door in June? If you are stuck for an answer, you had better get unstuck in a hurry. Your stu den ts and their parents, yo u r principal, the school bo ard, the sta te legislature, Congress, and the pre sident all want to know what you have accomplished over th e 9 months of the school year.

Shared Writing: An Instructional Approach for Reluctant Writers

Abstract: Although many teachers have probably used a technique similar to shared writing in the classroom, there has been little discussion of or research on this method. Williams and Wason (1977) studied a similar technique that they referred to as collaborative writing. In their study, high school students wrote stories in collaborative pairs in an English M any students with learning problems find it difficult to write. Students who continually fail at tasks involving written expression eventually lose their motivation to engage in writing activities. They begin to associate the act of writing with their struggles with mechanical skills such as handwriting, spelling, and punctuation (Graves, 1985). Often they learn to compensate for their problems through avoidance. Rather than risk failure, they simply give up (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984). Special education and regular classroom teachers are constantly searching for techniques to motivate these discouraged students. One technique that seems promising is shared writing, a method by which a student shares the actual process of composition with the teacher, another student, or a group of students. The co-authors alternate turns to produce the composition.

Adapting Textbooks for Children with Learning Disabilities in Mainstreamed Classrooms.

Abstract: Teachers can ask student or adult volunteer groups to prepare tape-recorded versions of textbooks (Smith & Smith, 1985). Recorded text segments should be kept clear and short. On the tape, a teacher may also provide an overview of the selection before reading begins (Bos & Vaughn, 1988); give clear signals to the reader for page location; and stop periodically in order to summarize important information or ask the student to respond to questions (Salend, 1990). Tapes of textbooks commonly used in content classes are available free of charge, or for a small fee, from organizations such as Recordings for the Blind, 214 East 58th, New York,NY 10022.

Collaborative Training in the Education of Early Childhood Educators

Abstract: Barbara Lowenthal Recent legislation and governmental policy have made it necessary to ensure collaboration in the training of early childhood and special educators. Both Public Law 99-457 (The Education of the Handicapped Amendments of 1986) and the regular education initiative proposed by the federal government have provided a rationale for this cooperation (Guralnick, 1981, 1982; Hanson & Hanline, 1989; Lilly, 1986; Strain & Kerr, 1981; Will, 1986). Early childhood special educators will need to be taught how to practice collaboration, which is defined by Weaver (1979) as \"not mere cooperation or a matter of good will, but an agreed-upon distribution of power, status, and authority\" (p. 24). p.L. 99-457 mandates that preschoolers with special needs be placed in the least restrictive environment (Wang, 1989). For quite a few of these children, this mandate means that they will participate in typical preschool settings. One of the difficulties with this requirement is that, historically, many preschoolers with disabilities have been served by public and private agencies

Using a Picture Task Analysis to Teach Students with Multiple Disabilities.

Abstract: T he task analysis approach to teaching multiple-step skills to students with disabilities has been used for many years (Brown, 1987). Teachers of students with moderate and severe disabilities provide instruction across domains by (a) breaking the skill into component steps; (b) prompting students through forward, backward, or total task chains; and (c) recording step-by-step progress toward skill acquisition. Likewise, the use of pictures to augment communication for persons with speech and language disabilities now is commonplace (ASHA, 1981). In addition to this use as a method of expressive communication, pictorial symbols are used in advertising, transportation, and public facilities. Increasingly, educators and researchers have combined task analysis and augmentative communication procedures to produce sequences of pictures that represent the steps an individual must perform to carry out domestic, community, vocational, and leisure tasks. A picture task analysis is a pictorial representation of the critical steps in a task analysis sequenced and displayed for the learner to follow. Picture task analyses enable learners with moderate and severe disabilities to gain meaningful skills that previously were beyond their grasp.

Students with Language Deficiencies: Suggestions for Frustrated Teachers

Abstract: 30 TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN S tudents who exhibit language deficiencies may be classified by different categories of exceptionality. Some have impairments obvious enough to be identified as having language delays or language learning disabilities. Language deficiencies are also the primary concern in individuals with hearing impairments. In addition, there are students whose school performance is diminished by cultural or socioeconomic factors that influence language competence (Gearheart, Weishahn, & Gearheart, 1988; Polloway & Smith, 1982; Wiig & Semel, 1984). Students with language delays develop language skills in a normal sequence, but their skills are delayed enough to place them behind their peers. In some instances, their language skills may be several years behind those of other students of the same age. These students generally exhibit language deficiencies throughout the school years, and the gaps in language skill level are not reduced. Students with language learning disabilities may possess deficiencies in phonology (articulation disorders), semantics (word meanin~ including figurative language and multiple meanings), syntax (including direct and indirect statements), morphology (tense, prefix, and suffix rules), and pragmatics (social uses of language) (Wiig & Semel, 1984). Students with hearing impairments who rely primarily on residual hearing and speech for communication have well-documented language deficiencies that limit their reading comprehension as well as their oral communication skills (Gearheart et al., 1988). Students with language differences are those whose language backgrounds may be other than English or whose dialects conflict with the standard school language of classroom instruction and textbooks. These students may have limited listening, reading, and writing skills (Polloway & Smith, 1982). Many students with language deficiencies are served in resource settings rather than self-contained classrooms. Service providers may be speech-language pathologists, special education teachers, or regular education teachers.

Authoring CAI Lessons: Teachers as Developers.

Abstract: teachers gain facility with computers in the classroom, many become interested in crea ting computerbased lessons, referred to as courseware, to input their own content and modify program presentation features for individual students. To do this, they can call on an excellent ran ge of authoring software programs. The authoring programs which are easiest to use are known as mini-authoring programs. Typically, they provide a lesson shell stru cture into which teachers enter their own content. These programs may allow a range of options for modifying lesson delivery such as response time or criteria for mastery.Miniauthoring programs have many advantages. They are easy to use, run error-free, and requ ire minimal knowledge of computer-assisted instruction (CAl) or screen design. However, they are limited in flexibility, usually providing a narrow range of options to the user. Primarily the y are designed for drill-and-practice activities. One type of authoring program is known as hypermedia, which allows the teacher to compose computer-assisted instruction (CAl) from scratch.All the elements for cr eating comp u terize d lessons exist as building blocks within hypermedia-authoring programs. The teacher sits down in front of a blank • • CHI

An Approach to Teaching Self-Dressing to a Child with Dual Sensory Impairment.

Abstract: Instruction in toileting, d ressin g, and feed in g received much atte n tio n in the 1960s a n d 1970s. Durin g those ye ars, behavioral principles first were applied to change levels of responding by individua ls wi th mental and physical d isabili ties who were living in institutions (Van Hasselt, Ammerman, & Sisson, 1990). This focus was based on a desire to improve the quality of life of individuals with severe disabilities by increasing their independence and improving their social acceptability. One group that could benefit from instruction in self-help skills includes those individuals with dual sensory impairment. Most who are deaf and blind function in the severe to profound ranges of mental retardation due to their inability to perform basic skills (Orlansky, 1981). Instruction for this population is hindered by (a) the presence of interfering, maladaptive behaviors; (b) problems with adaptation of materials and techniques; and (c) difficulty in identifying reinforcers to use in skills instru ction programs (Sisson, Van Hasselt, & Hersen , 1987). Luiselli (1987, 1988a, 1988b) recently publi shed several reports that described self-help skills interven tions with children and adolescents who were deaf and blind and suffered from moderate to severe mental retardation. In one study (Luiselli, 1987),toilet training was conducted with a 19-year-old wom an

Do You See What I Mean? Body Language in Classroom Interactions:

Abstract: metaphor "Don't look at me in that tone of voice" to a student is intuitively aware of the impact of the student's nonverbal message. All teachers should be aware of nonverbal communication in the classroom in order to enhance their ability to (a) receive students' messages more accurately; (b) send congruent and positive signals to denote expectations, convey attitudes, regulate interactions, and reinforce learning; and (c)avoid incongruent and negative cues that confuse students and stifle learning (Miller, 1986; Woolfolk & Brooks, 1985). Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in all classroom interactions. According to Smith (1979), "Whether teachers are talking or not, they are always communicating" (p. 633). In fact, studies have revealed that 82% of teacher messages are nonverbal; only 18% are verbal (Grant & Hennings, 1971). Several studies have shown that the nonverbal component of classroom communication is more influential than the verbal component (Keith, Tornatzky, & Pettigrew, 1974; Woolfolk & Brooks, 1985). In recent years investigators have examined commonly used nonverbal signals in educational settings. They have studied frequency and intensity of direct eye contact (Brooks, 1984),interpersonal distance (Brooks & Wilson, 1978), teacher-approval gestures (Nafpaktitis, Mayer, & Butterworth, 1985), and nonverbal criticisms (Simpson & Erickson, 1983). While teachers know about these nonverbal communication indexes, many are unaware of the influential role of nonverbal behaviors. They need to realize, for instance, that if there is incongruity or discrepancy between words and body language, the nonverbal message will dominate (Miller,1986). This article explains how teachers can analyze their own communication styles so that there is harmony between what they say and how they say it and they can learn to interpret selected nonverbal signals frequently used by students. In particular, it focuses on proximics, a person's use and perception of space, and kinesics, a person's facial and body cues. It should be noted that individual nonverbal behaviors do not have implicit meaning; they should be considered in context. As Bates, Johnson, and Blaker (1982) stated, "Nonverbal messages cannot be read with certainty. Tosuggest that they can is irresponsible, but to ignore them is equally irresponsible" (p. 129). u

Improving Student Achievement through Creative Writing.

Abstract: Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)were prepared for each of the nine students in the program. Psychological test data, the Brigance testing program, KeyMath, and a silent reading inventory, as well as teacher observations, provided evidence of specific needs. The objectives written in each student's IEP were designed to address the strengths and weaknesses identified through testing procedures and observations. Each IEP clearly stated that the self-contained class students were enrolled in an alternative program. The curriculum was modified to make it appropriate for the Students are provided with a wealth of writing opportunities in the"ClutterComer.

Research Participation: Benefits and Considerations for the Special Educator.

Abstract: to research involvement, a careful assessment of the conceptual soundness, feasibility, and ethicality of any proposed study should be made. In addition, the teacher and administrator should consider ways they can facilitate the research. Besides the direct benefits the teacher, students, and programs may receive, the teacher's involvement in research can contribute to present efforts to bridge the gap between research and classroom practice (Odom, 1988) as the teacher is instrumental in opening channels for dialogue between these two worlds.

Translating Research on Text Structure into Classroom Practice.

Abstract: Pattern 2: Sequential Episodic Map The sequential episodic map would be particularly useful in a history class. Figure 2 illustrates a completed map of a history chapter dealing with the events that led Americans to organize the First Continental Congress (labeled a in Figure 1). Arrow boxes (labeled b) illustrate the relevant cause-and-effect relationships. The boxes below the arrow boxes (labeled c) indicate that a sequence of events contributes to a larger category of events.

Data Collection and Graphing Method for Teaching Chained Tasks with the Constant Time Delay Procedure.

Abstract: ing skills to individuals who have developmental disabilities is the constant time delay procedure (Snell & Gast, 1981). With this procedure, the stimulus being taught and a controlling prompt (i.e., the prompt that, when given, ensures that the student will make the correct response) are presented simultaneously. After a specified number of O-second delay trials, the teacher waits for a fixed amount of time (e.g., 4 seconds) between the presentation of the stimulus and the controlling prompt. This delay interval is used for all remaining trials until the student consistently responds to the stimulus without needing the prompt (Wolery,Ault, & Doyle, in press; Wolery, Bailey,& Sugai, 1988).

Technology at Work: Computer Applications to Facilitate Curriculum-Based Measurement

Abstract: Ongoing monitoring of student progress for the purpose of improving instructional programshasbecome an important feature ofeffective special educationpractices (e.g., Christenson, Ysseldyke, & Thurlow, 1989; Gersten, Carnine, & Woodward, 1987; Reisberg & Wolf, 1988; Will, 1986; Zigmond & Miller, 1986). Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is one well-developed approach to such monitoring (Deno, 1985; Fuchs & Deno, 1991). Research demonstrates that CBM describes students' basic skills progress accurately and meaningfully and that teachers can successfullyuse it to enhance I PRACTICES I

I CAN: An Acronym for Success.

Abstract: ••• •• • • • the basic CBM strategy outlined by Meichenbaum (1977). Developed for fourth-grade students with learning disabilities, its main goal is to provide them with a self-encouraging, affirming statement to use as they develop more responsibility for their learning. By using I CAN, teachers can document change over time, improve communication with parents, and enhance parental understanding of their child's individualized programming. The words formed by the acronym I CAN, Independence, Completion, Accuracy, and Neatness, represent a synopsis of the behavioral and study goals targeted on the individualized education programs (IEP 's) of five representative fourthgrade students with learning disabilities. According to Strein (1987), it is extremely importan t to master these skills at this grade level because the curriculum demands more independence in the presentation and production of classroom assignments.

Developmental Aquatics: Assessment and Instructional Programming

Abstract: /( uatics is increasingly recognized as a valuable part of an educational and therapeutic program for children with developmental disabilities (Campion, 1985). Most adapted aquatics programs such as those offered by the American Red Cross or the YMCA are designed to teach basic swimming skills to individuals with mild to moderate disabilities (American National Red Cross, 1977; YMCA of the USA, 1987). However, some children with disabilities are unable to attempt these beginner skills either because they are very young (under age 6), have low cognitive functioning, or have severe motor disabilities. There is little published material to assist educators in developing appropriate individualized programs for children with these limitations. This article provides an assessment tool and guidelines for creating instructional programming for aquatic skills development for children with disabilities who are functioning at a level below that of adapted beginner programs.