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Showing papers in "Tellus A in 1961"


Journal ArticleDOI
Henry Stommel1
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: Free convection between two interconnected reservoirs, due to density differences maintained by heat and salt transfer to the reservoirs, is shown to occur sometimes in two different stable regimes, and may possibly be analogous to certain features of the oseanic circulation as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Free convection between two interconnected reservoirs, due to density differences maintained by heat and salt transfer to the reservoirs, is shown to occur sometimes in two different stable regimes, and may possibly be analogous to certain features of the oseanic circulation.

1,143 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, a short survey of the principles underlying the determination of the turbidity coefficient is given, and a condensed summary of earlier and also more recent determinations of? is given.
Abstract: After a short survey I of the principles underlying the determination of the turbidity coefficient ?, earlier introduced by the author as a measure of the atmospheric turbidity, a condensed summary II is given of earlier and also of more recent determinations of ?. The variation of the turbidity with the time of the year, the airmass and with latitude is discussed. Finally a simple method of determining the wave length dependence of the extinction by atmospheric aerosol is outlined. The method is founded upon measurements of integral radiation values with aid of pyrheliometers and glass filters, III. Accuracy and probable error are considered, IV. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00078.x

450 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: The inertial boundary layer theory developed by Charney and Morgan to explain the intensification of currents near the western boundary of an ocean is applied to the northward flowing atmospheric jet stream observed in the lowest two kilometers over the central United States; here the mountainous spine of Central America serves as a barrier to the westward flowing trade-wind current and deflects it to the south as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The inertial boundary layer theory developed by Charney and Morgan to explain the intensification of currents near the western boundary of an ocean is applied to the northward flowing atmospheric jet stream observed in the lowest two kilometers over the central United States; here the mountainous spine of Central America serves as a barrier to the westward flowing trade-wind current and deflects it to the north. Because of diurnal frictional changes caused by surface heating and cooling, the jet undergoes a marked diurnal variation with a noctural maximum so strong that the current becomes super-geostrophic. The dynamic consequences of the unbalanced current are examined in the light of theories by Tepper and Veronis. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00098.x

154 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, a model of steady airflow past a three-dimensional mountain is considered, where the fluid is inviscid and incompressible, and the primary and secondary velocities are found for large Richardson number (proportional to gd?/? dz 0 ).
Abstract: A model of steady airflow past a three-dimensional mountain is considered. The fluid is inviscid and incompressible. The flow is under the influence of gravity, but for most of the work the earth's rotation is neglected. Far upstream the flow is parallel and horizontal, the velocity U ( z ) and the density ?( z ) varying with height z . By use of conservation of density and head along streamlines, and thence of the dependence of density and head on one variable z 0 only, the equations of motion are simplified, z 0 (r) being the height far upstream of the streamline through the point with position vector r. The flow is considered first with small and then with large density variations far upstream. In the case when these variations are small, results of the known method of simple-shear secondary flows are rederived and extended. The chief consideration of this paper is the buoyancy effects of large variations of density in the oncoming stream. For simplicity, the shear far upstream is neglected. The primary and secondary velocities are found for large Richardson number (proportional to gd ?/? dz 0 ). The method is time-symmetric and analogous to taking the first two terms of the Janzen-Rayleigh expansion, the inverse of the Richardson number being the analogue of the square of the Mach number. The primary velocity, for infinite buoyancy forces, is horizontal, the flow in each horizontal plane being the same as the potential flow about the section of the obstacle in that plane. In general there is shear between horizontal planes, with horizontal primary vorticity. The secondary flow is found explicitly for a circular cylinder with vertical axis and for a hemisphere resting in a horizontal plane. The secondary approximation is not uniformly valid near the horizontal plane at the height of the top (if any) of the obstacle. Near that plane there is an inviscid shear layer, and the velocity gradient cannot be neglected, however large the Richardson number. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00081.x

134 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: A detailed evaluation of the production rate of natural tritium in the pre-thermonuclear epoch is made in this paper, where the deuterium-tritium relationships are used to establish the general pattern of trittium variations over the North American continent.
Abstract: A detailed evaluation is made of the production rate of natural tritium in the pre-thermonuclear epoch. Deuterium and tritium analyses on the same precipitation samples are used to establish the uncontaminated tritium levels in precipitation sampled before the Castle tests, and the tritium balance is calculated for the North American troposphere. The global mean production rate Q?, calculated from the geochemical inventory, is found to be 0.5 ± 0.3 atoms T/cm 2 sec. This value is three to four times smaller than values found previously by such calculations because of the following developments: 1 The deuterium and tritium data show that the increases in tritium content observed during early thermonuclear tests before Castle are due to addition of synthetic tritium rather than to random fluctuations. The deuterium-tritium relationships are used to establish the general pattern of tritium variations over the North American continent and to evaluate the uncontaminated tritium levels. 2 The mean stratospheric residence time for tritium is found to be about 1.6 years from studies on fission product fallout and from the latitudinal variation of stratospheric cosmic ray production. 3 Stratospheric tritium is preferentially injected into the troposphere at high latitudes, as shown by fallout observations. The tritium influx into the North American troposphere is therefore higher than the mean global value. The predicted production rate is calculated from cosmic ray and nuclear cross section data using the star production rates in the atmosphere. The predicted mean global tritium production rate during an average solar cycle is found to be 0.25 ± 0.08 atoms T/cm 2 sec. The variation in the production rate over an average solar cycle is found to be ± 4.5%. Within the uncertainties of the data and calculations, the production rates calculated from the geochemical inventory and from the cosmic ray data are in agreement, and there is thus no observational evidence for accretion of tritium from an extra-terrestrial source. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00068.x

129 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used observations from research flight missions into hurricane Daisy (1958) to compute the budgets of heat, moisture, kinetic energy, and momentum, and concluded that the important mechanisms of the hurricane core can be well represented in a two-dimensional framework.
Abstract: Observations from research flight missions into hurricane Daisy (1958) are utilized to compute the budgets of heat, moisture, kinetic energy, and momentum. Calculations are performed for a period when the cyclone was just becoming a hurricane, and for a second period, two days later, when it had attained maturity. The level of non-divergence separating lower inflow from upper outflow was quite high, near 500 mb. Mass flow increased considerably between the two days, but rainfall remained quite moderate for a severe hurricane. The radiation heat sink was small compared to the oceanic source so that the system was “open” within the confines of the study. If all ascent took place in the hard radar echoes, the mean vertical speed there was about 7 meters per sec. Without such localized ascent, heat balance could not be achieved. Heat budget computations permitted assessing the fraction of mass flow reaching upper levels in undilute “hot” cumulonimbus towers and estimation of the number of such towers required, to compare with previous photographic studies. Hot towers proved to be the dominant mechanism of raising warm air to upper levels, particularly in the inner core. However, because of the high level of non-divergence the constraint known as ventilation was active. It is shown not to have been a severe deterrent upon Daisy, nor was it the reason she did not become an extreme storm. Kinetic energy balance is obtained readily on the first day. Import of kinetic energy through the outermost radius was small, so that most of the energy dissipated in the interior was also produced there by the pressure forces. Ground and internal friction were about equal. The kinetic energy source shifted outward as the storm grew, so that on the day of maturity large inward transport took place. The internal source also increased but wind speeds failed to rise correspondingly. Hence ground friction was inadequate to balance production plus import, and large internal dissipation had to be invoked. This dissipation must be assigned largely to vertical eddies. If ascribed to horizontal eddies, the coefficient of lateral exchange becomes so large that momentum budget requirements cannot be fulfilled by a large amount. It is concluded from the study that the important mechanisms of the hurricane core can be well represented in a two-dimensional framework, provided the essential effects of the buoyant cumulonimbus towers are properly introduced or parameterized therein. The two-dimensional flow of mass is shown in relation to the fields of heat, momentum, and vorticity. The law of conservation of potential vorticity appears to be well satisfied along the stream tubes of the mean motion. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00077.x

120 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, the geostrophic flow at the sea surface with respect to the 1,000-decibar surface is shown to agree in general with the averages of currents estimated from the set and drift of vessels and tabulated in various atlases.
Abstract: The geopotential anomaly at the surface of the Pacific Ocean with respect to the 1,000-decibar surface is computed. Horizontal variations in geopotential at greater depth are shown to be smaller and are neglected. The geostrophic flow at the sea surface with respect to the 1,000-decibar surface is shown to agree in general with the averages of currents estimated from the set and drift of vessels and tabulated in various atlases. The major gyres of the ocean are clearly shown and one new feature, a South Equatorial Countercurrent, is revealed in the western Pacific. Since there is meridional flow in the ocean, the flow is not entirely geostrophic and the contours of geopotential anomaly may lie at some angle to the streamlines. This is most evident where the contours intersect the coast and cross the equator. A qualitative consideration of wind stress indicates that where wind and current are in the same direction geopotential anomaly will rise along a streamline and where they are opposed geopotential anomaly will decrease along a streamline. This effect can at least qualitatively account for the rise of geopotential anomaly to the west in the region of the trades and toward the east in the northern hemisphere westerlies. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00111.x

96 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the TIROS I photographs of cellular cloud patterns are related to conventional meteorological observations and the cellular patterns occurred at the top of convective layers which were heated from below; and through which there was little vertical variation in wind velocity.
Abstract: In this report some satellite (TIROS I) photographs of cellular cloud patterns are related to conventional meteorological observations. These cellular patterns occurred at the top of convective layers which were heated from below; and through which there was little vertical variation in wind velocity. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00061.x

80 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the authors have shown that if the stratification is unstable for ascending motion over an infinite area and stable for descending motion, and small random perturbations of various scales are introduced, the final disturbance evolved will have the dimension of a cumulus cloud.
Abstract: The analysis has shown that if the stratification is unstable for ascending motion over an infinite area and stable for descending motion, and small random perturbations of various scales are introduced, the final disturbance evolved will have the dimension of a cumulus cloud. The stable stratification in the descending region has the effect of increasing the critical lapse-rate and narrowing the ascending region and making the descending motion widespread, so that the centers of the ascending regions are further apart. The distance estimated from the theoretical analysis agrees favorably with those obtained from satellite observations. The distributions of the various perturbation quantities pertaining to a circular symmetrical disturbance have been obtained. They show many resemblances to the corresponding distributions in tropical storms. Since the main source of energy of the mature tropical storms is the latent heat of condensation, it is really tempting to attribute the formation of these large-scale disturbances directly to convection in conditionally unstable air. However, the analysis shows that some organizing mechanisms are needed in order to channel the release of the energy of unstable stratification into a large scale circulation. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00107.x

79 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the horizontal transfer of kinetic energy from meanders to mean flow at two separate localities in the Gulf Stream System has been investigated using surface velocity observations, and it was found that there was a surface flow of energy from the meander to the mean flow, exactly opposite to what would be expected if the meanders were frictionally driven.
Abstract: Calculations have been made, using surface velocity observations, of the horizontal transfer of kinetic energy from meanders to mean flow at two separate localities in the Gulf Stream System. In both cases, it was found that there was a surface flow of kinetic energy from the meanders to the mean flow, exactly opposite to what would be expected if the meanders were frictionally driven. The observations suggest that the meanders derive energy from sources other than the kinetic energy of the mean flow. The role of the meanders in relation to the mean Gulf Stream appears analogous to that of large-scale eddies in relation to the general circulation of the atmosphere. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00100.x

74 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the growth rate of necks between ice spheres having radii R < 100? was measured in both saturated air and kerosene environments, and it was shown that ice-bonding takes place as a result of solid diffusion.
Abstract: Adhesion of ice, or ice-bonding phenomenon, at temperatures below 0° C was studied from the viewpoint of sintering. The growth rate of necks between ice spheres having radii R < 100 ? was measured in both saturated air and kerosene environments. The results showed that ice-bonding, or adhesion, takes place as a result of solid diffusion. Many photomicrographs of ice-bonds were taken by making use of thin-section technique. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00082.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Jan 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of the frictiona boundary layer in waves on a baroclinic current was investigated and it was found that the change of the propagation speed of waves due to friction is significant only within the waveband, for which amplification occurs.
Abstract: Pertubation equations for a two-layer model are used to study the effect of the frictiona boundary layer in waves on a baroclinic current. It is found, that the change of the propagation speed of waves due to friction is significant only within the waveband, for which amplification occurs. Compared with the frictionless case, this waveband is broader when friction is included. The frictiona! instability is explained by kinetic energy considerations. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00097.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, maps of clouds in Hurricane Daisy, 1958, have been constructed from aerial cine photographs made by the aircraft of the National Hurricane Research Project of the U.S. Weather Bureau.
Abstract: Maps of clouds in Hurricane Daisy, 1958, have been constructed from aerial cine photographs made by the aircraft of the National Hurricane Research Project of the U.S. Weather Bureau. Films suitable for quantitative analysis were available for four flights on three separate days during the formation, deepening, and maturity of this small but intense Atlantic hurricane which moved slowly over the ocean in the vicinity of 30° N, 76° W. Clouds were located within 5–10 nautical miles relative to the known aircraft path (in coordinates with origin at hurricane center) by a modified method of aerial photogrammetry using the accurately known times for the image to cross a frame. Horizontal and vertical dimensions of important clouds and cloud forms have been measured to within about 10%. The photographic maps are compared to radar analyses made from the same and also different aircraft (U.S. Navy WV-4). The most significant results are first the remarkable persistence of recognizable cloud patterns throughout the three days studied, during which the storm deepened and moved about 200 nautical miles and second, the concentration of convective activity into a few lines of cumulonimbus towers which even on the mature day occupied only about 4% of the rain area (radius within about 200 nautical miles). DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00062.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the authors show that the existence of a quasi-isothermal surface layer is a necessary consequence of the vertical distribution of heat sources and sinks, which requires an upward transport of heat.
Abstract: The occurrence of a quasi-isothermal surface layer is shown to be a necessary consequence of the vertical distribution of heat sources and sinks, which requires an upward transport of heat. The depth of the convective layer depends essentially on a balance between the absorption of visible radiation within the layer and the loss of heat at the surface. Variations in the profile below the isothermal layer are primarily caused by vertical motion. Numerical examples illustrate the effects of meteorological conditions on the heat loss and hence on the surface temperature and thermal structure below. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00080.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of the frictiona boundary layer in waves on a baroclinic current was investigated and it was found that the change of the propagation speed of waves due to friction is significant only within the waveband, for which amplification occurs.
Abstract: Pertubation equations for a two-layer model are used to study the effect of the frictiona boundary layer in waves on a baroclinic current. It is found, that the change of the propagation speed of waves due to friction is significant only within the waveband, for which amplification occurs. Compared with the frictionless case, this waveband is broader when friction is included. The frictiona! instability is explained by kinetic energy considerations.

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: Numerical estimates of the accuracy attainable by this method indicate that dynamical methods are significantly better than conventional methods based on pure interpolation and smoothing.
Abstract: This paper deals with the problem of reconstructing meteorological conditions in “holes””— i.e., large regions from which no data are received, but which are surrounded by regions in which the frequency and density of observations are fairly high. The method proposed here is a combination of numerical procedures of analysis and prediction, by which one can generate a series of increasingly exact analyses in a hole. It is shown that the error of this method approaches a definite lower limit which depends on: 1).? The size and shape of a hole 2).? The average time required for individual particles to travel across the hole. 3).? The average absolute rate of flow across the boundary of the hole, and 4).? A statistical measure of the inaccuracies inherent in the prediction system. Numerical estimates of the accuracy attainable by this method indicate that dynamical methods are significantly better than conventional methods based on pure interpolation and smoothing. Finally, some aspects of the problem of network design are reviewed in the light of our present results. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00094.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: Ozone measurements during a solar eclipse at Bunia Observatory, Belgian Congo, showed an increase by about 4% of total amount from 20 minutes before the maximum phase with its highest value shortly after it as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Ozone measurements during a solar eclipse at Bunia Observatory, Belgian Congo, showed an increase by about 4% of total amount from 20 minutes before the maximum phase with its highest value shortly after it. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00084.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, an account of about 250 impactions made on ten flights to sample chloride particles is given, and the results show that in the main, chloride particles originate from the sea surface but there is a possibility that the land or the coast produce some in the range 10?11 to 10?13 g.
Abstract: An account is given of about 250 impactions made on ten flights to sample chloride particles. The particles are captured on small perspex slides coated with a gelatin-silver nitrate solution and become manifest as circular discs. The calibration of the method is described and the lower limit of detection is found to be about 10 ?13 gm. NaCl. The results show that, in the main, chloride particles originate from the sea surface but there is a possibility that the land or the coast produce some in the range 10 ?11 to 10 ?13 g. Particle concentrations are found up to about 2,000 litre ?1 and total chloride contents up to 230 ?g m ?3 . The variations of these particle concentrations with height, wind speed, state of sea and the three-day history of the sampled air are discussed. Data are also presented on the concentrations of dust particles which were inadvertently sampled simultaneously with the chloride particles. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00083.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, a palaeomagnetic survey of rocks whose ages are Upper Silurian, Lower Devonian, Middle Devonian and Upper Devonian has been made from southern New South Wales.
Abstract: From southern New South Wales a palaeomagnetic survey of rocks whose ages are Upper Silurian — Lower Devonian, Middle Devonian and Upper Devonian has been made. The rock types include the Canberra Volcanics and Porphyries, the Murrumbidgee Sandstones and the Nethercote Basalts. Throughout these formations and irrespective of the rock type the directions of magnetization are remarkably uniform. The low inclination of the direction of remanent magnetization indicate that throughout this period Australia lay 10–15° away from the equator, the pole lying in the South Atlantic. Evidence for stability of the rocks is as follows: (1) their uniformity of direction, (2) the deviation from the present geomagnetic and dipole fields, (3) the presence of normal and reversely magnetized rocks. These data lend support to the belief that south-eastern Australia experienced tropical conditions during the Devonian. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00071.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, it is shown that the assumed stationary form of the vorticity equation acts as a filter which eliminates the Rossby type waves from the solution of the linearized equations in the two-parameter case.
Abstract: Recent studies of the planetary waves in the atmosphere have suggested that the vorticity equation assumes a quasi-stationary character for motions whose scale is comparable to the radius of the earth. These tentative results are adopted as a working hypothesis, and a preliminary study is made of the stability and structure of the waves which are possible in an atmospheric model which is formulated on the basis of the working hypothesis. It is shown that the assumed stationary form of the vorticity equation acts as a filter which eliminates the Rossby type waves from the solution of the linearized equations in the two-parameter case. The wave-solutions in a linearized form of a three-parameter model are next found and investigated. The major results are that only slowly moving waves are possible and that unstable wave-solutions will appear for sufficiently large vertical wind-shears. A modified form of the model in which horizontal advection of vorticity is also included is analyzed, and it is shown that a wave-length of maximum instability occurs. A prediction model which can be used in studies of the planetary waves is formulated. Since the model will apply to planetary scales only, it can be used to study the importance of non-linear interactions between the planetary scales and smaller scales. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00093.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, measurements have been made of the size distribution of large droplets in various clouds at a station situated on Mount Kuro and the results show that most nimbostratus, cumulus congestus and cumulonimbus clouds contain large droppers of radii above 50?.
Abstract: Measurements have been made of the size distribution of large droplets in various clouds at a station situated on Mount Kuro. The results show that most nimbostratus, cumulus congestus and cumulonimbus clouds contain large droplets of radii above 50 ?. The spectral distributions fit fairly well the relation N= N0r ?? where ? has values between 4 and 11. The concentration of large droplets varies widely and values above 10 5 per m ?3 are frequently observed in precipitating clouds. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00113.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: The two-layer model of Lorenz appears to be the simplest fully-consistent formulation, and the freedom of this model from the constraints upon the Coriolis parameter and static stability characteristic of the usual quasi-geostrophic models is felt to be particularly important as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The design and performance of simple atmospheric models is briefly reviewed as an introduction to the question of energetic consistency. The two-layer model of Lorenz appears to be the simplest fully-consistent formulation, and the freedom of this model from the constraints upon the Coriolis parameter and static stability characteristic of the usual quasi-geostrophic models is felt to be particularly important. As a prelude to actual numerical integration, the baroclinic stability properties and the energy transformations of this two-layer model are examined. It is found that the perturbations are here significantly more unstable than when the static stability is constrained in the usual manner. For the finite-amplitude disturbances, it is found that some of their available potential energy is transferred to the mean state through the stabilizing action of the systematic rising of the warmer air. These results suggest that the variation of the static stability both promotes the growth of new disturbances and limits the growth of the mature disturbances—effects which would appear to remedy some of the conspicuous performance errors of the conventional two-level models. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00108.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied the motion of lee wave clouds over an infinitely long mountain ridge, where the scale of the motion is assumed to be so small that the influence of the earth's rotation can be neglected.
Abstract: The motion over an infinitely long mountain ridge has been studied. The scale of the motion is assumed to be so small that the influence of the earth's rotation can be neglected. It is assumed further that the motion is non-viscous, laminar, steady and isentropic. The resulting wave equation is solved under the assumption that the coefficient which contains the vertical variation of the wind and temperature can be approximated by the function: ? 0 exp(? ?z) + ? 1 . The wavelengths and amplitudes are evaluated in four actual cases when lee wave clouds have been observed. The agreement between the observed and computed distances between the piles of lee wave clouds is good. In these four cases comparison is also made with the simple method to compute the wavelength obtained by considering the oscillation of an air parcel in a stable atmosphere. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00092.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated mean monthly meridional and zonal circulations in the region of the Indonesia-Australia summer monsoon and associated transfers of heat energy using upper air soundings, rainfall and other data from two seasons.
Abstract: Mean monthly meridional and zonal circulations in the region of the Indonesia-Australia summer monsoon and associated transfers of heat energy are investigated using upper air soundings, rainfall and other data from two seasons. Daily sounding data are used to determine also the eddy flux of latent heat. A large increase of meridional circulation strength and energy transfer from November to December on the northern side of the monsoonal trough suggests that establishment of the regime is associated with a comparatively abrupt southward shift and intensification of the Northern Hadley cell in the relevant longitude sector. When the monsoon has become established latent heat relase in the region exceeds net export of sensible heat from it by a comparatively small amount. These quantities dominate the remaining ones in the heat balance, viz. net radiative cooling in the troposphere and sensible heat transfer from the ocean. Items in the heat budget are compared with those obtaining during the pre-monsoonal regime in the area and on the winter side of the equatorial trough zone at large, the latter according to Riehl and Malkus (1959). Gain of sensible heat is also assessed separately for the lower and upper troposphere in terms of gain or loss of internal energy, the work done by horizontal pressure gradient forces and by vertical pressure gradient forces (gain of potential energy). The vertical upward flux of energy across mid-tropospheric level is deduced and the importance of buoyancy in bringing about this flux is indicated. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00109.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the tritium and carbon-14 content of the stratosphere at heights of between 80,000 and 100,000 feet, made over England during the years 1956 to 1960, are described.
Abstract: Measurements of the water vapour, tritium and carbon-14 content of the stratosphere at heights of between 80,000 and 100,000 feet, made over England during the years 1956 to 1960, are described. The tritium and carbon-14 concentrations are greater than those expected from natural production due to the cosmic radiation. The bulk of these two isotopes, at present in the stratosphere, has been injected there during the course of thermonuclear explosions. Mass spectrometric analyses show that the deuterium/hydrogen ratio of the water and the carbon-13/carbon-12 and oxygen-16/oxygen-18 ratios of the carbon dioxide collected at these heights were the same, within the accuracy of measurement, as those for samples collected near the ground. The concentration of tritium at the heights of the measurements has not fallen since the termination of thermonuclear weapon testing in autumn 1958. There is poor correlation between the tritium concentration at 90,000 feet and that of particulate caesium-137 at 47,000 feet measured over the sampling period. The humidity above 80,000 feet is found to be greater than that in the lower stratosphere. It is concluded from these humidity and tritium results that the large scale meridional circulation in the stratosphere, first postulated by Brewer and Dobson, does not reach heights of 90,000 feet over temperate latitudes. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00102.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, a short review is given on recent results as regards the circumsolar sky radiation and the combined effect of aperture and sky radiation on pyrheliometric readings, in the case of point receivers, is discussed.
Abstract: After an introduction on basic conceptions, concerning the influence of aperture conditions on the readings of actinometers, a short review is given on recent results as regards the circumsolar sky radiation. The combined effect of aperture and sky radiation on pyrheliometric readings, in the case of point receivers, is discussed. Conclusions are drawn as regards the influence of aperture conditions on (a) solar constant determinations and (b) on the difference between readings with aid of different pyrheliometers. The principles which ought to be applied in the construction of pyrheliometers for different kind of use, are briefly discussed. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00104.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this paper, a system of equations (motion, mass continuity and the first law of thermodynamics) can be integrated for a steady symmetric vortex with a prescribed tangential motion, and a consistent structure of an Atlantic hurricane is constructed from the National Hurricane Research Project data.
Abstract: It is shown how a system of equations (motion, mass continuity and the first law of thermodynamics) can be integrated for a steady symmetric vortex with a prescribed tangential motion. The method of characteristics is used to obtain a solution for the vertical-velocity field. For the normally observed characteristic lines in a hurricane no vertical velocity is possible for a frictionless atmosphere, and therefore numerical experiments are carried out with different magnitudes of the momentum exchange coefficients. It is also shown that as long as the ratio of the lateral and the vertical exchange coefficients is kept fixed, one calculation of the vertical velocity field enables an examination of a wide range of variation of the individual coefficients. A consistent structure of an Atlantic hurricane is constructed from the National Hurricane Research Project data. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00076.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Aug 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: It is argued that a more systematic study of truncation error is highly desirable and a number of integrations are commuted from the same partial differential equation using a variety of discretization schema.
Abstract: It is argued that a more systematic study of truncation error is highly desirable. A number of integrations are commuted from the same partial differential equation using a variety of discretization schema. In particular, the difficulty of advecting sharp gradients of a conservative quantity is emphisized. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00099.x

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 1961-Tellus A
TL;DR: In this article, the steady second-order drift velocity outside the boundary layer is calculated for various density and viscosity ratios and heights of interface above the boundary, when the layer next to the boundary is the more viscous, and the density difference negligible.
Abstract: Oscillatory laminar flow is considered in a liquid consisting of two superposed layers of different densities and viscosities, and the steady second order drift velocity outside the boundary layer is calculated for various density and viscosity ratios and heights of interface above the boundary. When the layer next to the boundary is the more viscous, and the density difference negligible, then the drift velocity exceeds Schlichting's value for a uniform liquid. The model is related to the motion of sediment layers in tidal estuaries, and a general landward drift of sediment is deduced. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1961.tb00067.x