Showing papers in "The Academy of Educational Leadership Journal in 2015"

Traits Possessed by Principals Who Transform School Culture in National Blue Ribbon Schools

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The ability of a principal to lead the students of the new millennia is based on his or her ability to set goals of excellence for teachers, students, staff and themselves. The principal must be the catalyst for enhancing and transforming the culture of the school in a positive and progressive manner thereby improving student learning. The purpose of this study was to identify common personal and professional qualities as well as strategies of a successful principals who lead National Blue Ribbon Schools in a Southern State. Data from this study may be used to inform administrators and aspiring administrators of common qualities and characteristics present in highly effective principals. The principal sets the tone and creates the culture for which teaching and learning takes place. If the principal is thoroughly analyzing, implementing, and evaluating the academic and social culture of his or her school they become better positioned to positively impact student achievement. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Transformational Leadership Burns (2003) contends that leaders in conjunction with the individuals that follow them create a symbiotic relationship that produces positive and significant heights of institutional morale and motivation. Burns believed that true transformational leaders lead by example and have the ability to articulate the goals of the organization which promotes a sense of excitement and moral obligation from the followers (Burns, 2003). Burns (2003) further asserted that through this positive cultural change the leader will motivate his or her followers to produce greater results as a result of the cultural environment being conducive for collaborative networking, mutual respect, and mentoring. Principals who possess these traits and many others are usually successful transformational leaders who produce improved student outcomes. Burns (1978) defined transformational leadership as one that elevates, mobilizes, inspires, and uplifts followers. He stated that by satisfying subordinates' needs and wants, leaders exert influence on their followers. Bass (1985) described transformational leaders as important agents of change. This leadership style has been defined based on its effects, transforming the values and priorities of followers and motivating them to perform beyond their expectations (Kark & Van Dijk, 2007; Yukl, 1998). Northouse (1998) described it as a process that changes and transforms individuals. Howell and Avolio (1993) noted that transformational leaders have a vision for the organization and they project that vision onto the members of the organization. "The overriding element of successful leadership is to involve people in the process of leading" (Horan, 1999, p. 21). Transformational leadership is about getting everyone involved in the decision-making. A defining factor of transformational leadership is that importance is placed on taking risks and creatively solving problems through the solicitation of group members (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 1989). Transformational leaders are not constrained by the boundaries or rules of an organization, but rather change or align the organization to accommodate their vision (Howell & Avolio, 1993). Transformational Leadership theories contain the following five common leader characteristics: creative, interactive, visionary, empowering, and passionate (Hackman & Johnson, 2000). Kouzes and Posner (2002) listed five practices of exemplary leaders: model the way (interactive), inspire a shared vision (visionary), challenge the process (creative), enable others to act (empowering), and encourage the heart (passionate) (Rowland, 2008). Other researchers have paralleled those thoughts with the described characteristics of transformational leaders: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Sivanathan & Fekken, 2002). …

The Effects of Leadership and High-Stakes Testing on Teacher Retention

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study was to examine whether principal leadership behaviors and the demands of high-stakes testing had an impact on teachers' intent to remain in the teaching profession. Teacher perceptions of what contributed to their intent to remain in the teaching profession, were also examined. First, the researchers examined whether principal leadership styles and behaviors affected teachers' intent to remain in the teaching profession. Second, the researchers examined the levels of teacher job satisfaction between state-measured subject area teachers such as those who teach reading, math, and English and those teachers in non-state-measured subject areas such as science, history, technology, and elective classes (e.g., band, choir, art). Third, the researchers examined whether a relationship existed between teacher job satisfaction and teacher mentoring with regard to teachers' intent to remain in the teaching profession. Also examined were the leading self-reported factors that contributed to teachers' intent to remain in or leave the teaching profession. Research suggests that at a time when teachers must carefully examine and master the roles and responsibilities of their profession to meet the needs of students as well as the demands of administrators and policy makers, strains experienced by teachers are resulting in teacher turnover (Valli & Buese, 2007). For some educators, these strains may be a result of high-stakes testing and stressors that are associated with test preparation, procedures, and accountability (Hahs-Vaughn & Scherff, 2008). Such accountability has led to standardization and high-stakes assessment in schools, which is primarily due to the widespread movement of government-regulated mandates in the United States (Rubin, 2011). This movement, which resulted in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, requires teachers of English/Language Arts (ELA) to administer high-stakes assessments in both reading and writing. According to Rubin (2011) teachers of ELA have become victimized due to the increased expectations and regulations placed on them above those placed on teachers in other subject areas. As a result, "for teachers today, both in ELA and across the curriculum, NCLB is harming teachers, their practice and their long-term commitment to the teaching profession" (Rubin, 2011, p. 407) While many teachers claim that responsibilities and workload have increased due to standardized testing (Valli & Buese, 2007), other educators state they merely cannot keep up with the demands of the profession, disrespect from students, an abundance of paperwork, and the lack of support received from administrators both at the school and district levels (Haberman, 2005). Leithwood and McAdie (2007) suggest that when teachers perceive their workload to be imbalanced compared to that of their peers, teacher stress is increased, teacher morale is weakened, and teacher commitment to schools becomes a concern. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Theoretical Foundation With accountability of NCLB at an all-time high, critics believe that school leaders face tremendous barriers in their efforts to reduce achievement gaps and retain highly-qualified teachers (Smith & Kovacs, 2011). With the emergence of education reform, teachers are held to higher standards and accountability, and student achievement remains at the forefront of educational priorities (Spradlin & Prendergast, 2006). Because of the focus on higher accountability, administrators are taking desperate measures to insure that their schools are meeting growth and expectations in the eyes of stakeholders and policy makers (Farber, 2010). Farber (2010) believes that although a majority of schools are meeting or exceeding expectations of accountability, these expectations come at the expense of teachers' time, health, and commitment to the profession. With the continuous pressure to increase student achievement particularly for tested-subject area teachers along with the lack of administrative support, teachers may feel greater stress in carrying out their responsibilities. …

A Roadmap for Using Kotter's Organizational Change Model to Build Faculty Engagement in Accreditation

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Accreditation has become vital for many universities in different countries. Accreditation may influence students in their decision of which university to attend, provide external validation and credibility, and assure accountability and quality to stakeholders (Brink & Smith, 2012). The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business International (AACSB) is a leading international accreditor of business and accounting programs at all postsecondary levels of academics. Indeed, according to the AACSB website (AACSB, 2013), "AACSB Accreditation is known, worldwide, as the longest standing, most recognized form of specialized/professional accreditation an institution and its business programs can earn." AACSB's reputation for accreditation rigor rests on its accreditation standards, which "challenge post-secondary educators to pursue excellence and continuous improvement throughout their business programs" (AACSB, 2013). These standards were first promulgated in 1919 and are updated and revised for each accreditation cycle, most recently in 2013 (and updated in 2015). A key driver in the successful achievement of these standards--whether by institutions seeking initial accreditation or for accredited institutions seeking to maintain their accreditation--is faculty. The AACSB 2013 business accreditation standards center on three key principles: engagement, innovation, and impact. Who is primarily responsible for implementing and evaluating these goals? Faculty. Given that today's faculty is likely to be over-committed, over-stressed, and under-appreciated, what is the best way to implement manageable, sustainable commitment to achieving AACSB standards? Top-down imposition by administrators is likely to be met by resistance or outright sabotage. Thus, understanding how to effectively and authentically engage faculty in the accreditation process is critical. Substantial research has shown that participation in decision-making about - and implementation of--organizational initiatives fosters greater understanding and acceptance of those initiatives. However, creating environments and strategies engendering effective participation that support and sustain organizational goals can be challenging. One approach that has proven useful in that regard is Kotter's eight stage model of change management (Kotter, 1996). This model provides a roadmap for developing methods and tactics for creating and maintaining both participant engagement and continuous organizational improvement and is thus directly applicable to fostering faculty participation in accreditation activities. In this paper, the authors first discuss the AACSB accreditation process and standards and how they involve faculty engagement. Kotter's model of change management is then used to develop a roadmap to promote faculty engagement. For each stage in the process, examples used in several accreditation efforts are provided. Lastly, the paper concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the process as well as future challenges. LITERATURE REVIEW AACSB Accreditation AACSB provides specialized accreditation for business and accounting programs at the bachelor's, master's, and doctoral levels. AACSB accreditation is internationally recognized and highly sought after. There are currently 716 AACSB accredited business institutions located in 48 countries and territories (http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/accredited-members/). Collegiate business schools offering accounting and business administration degrees may apply for an AACSB Accreditation review. Initially, the business school must establish its eligibility for accreditation. "During the init ial accreditation process, the school is evaluated on how well it achieves AACSB's accreditation standards, through a process of self-evaluation and peer review. After earning AACSB accreditation, the business school undergoes periodic peer reviews of its strategic improvement to continue its accreditation" (AACSB 2013, 2015). …

Optimizing Learning in Project-Based Capstone Courses

Abstract: This paper addresses the design and implementation of project-based capstone courses in undergraduate and graduate management education programs. A team project methodology is proposed that involves collaboration with an external sponsoring organization and focuses upon such issues as strategic analysis and development, remediation of organizational problems, product development, entrepreneurial start-up, not-for-profit organizational development, etc. Key elements discussed include high level educational goals for the capstone, criteria for project selection, processes for sponsor relationship management throughout the project life cycle and the facilitative role of faculty in such experiential learning. Other methods that optimize learning in the areas of leadership development and team process learning are also described.Keywords/Descriptors: Business education, capstone course, experiential learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning.ABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONStudents, employers, accrediting agencies, and those financing higher education increasingly challenge educators to demonstrate learning outcomes worthy of their substantial investments. Traditional academic methods using textbooks, lectures, case studies and other didactic learning approaches all play a potential role in addressing this challenge. Nevertheless, upon completion of a degree program, these stakeholders also want to know that the student can actually integrate and apply what they have learned in the "real world". A recent survey of employers in the Chronicle of Higher Education supports this notion (Maquire Associates, 2013). This study showed that employers preferentially valued a student's real world experiences relevant to the challenges of the employment context versus evidence of time spent in classroom activities, reading assignments, essays, discussions etc. Employers want to know if the student can actually use the knowledge gained in such activities.This paper explores one method for promoting learning grounded in this real-world experiential context - the Project-Based Capstone Course. Although the present analysis is drawn from a management education context, educators in other disciplines such as engineering, education or health care could also apply the approaches outlined herein. Topics discussed include delineation of capstone courses goals, criteria for project selection, processes for sponsor relationship management throughout the project life cycle and the facilitative role of faculty in such experiential learning. Methods for promoting leadership development and team process skills are also described.WHAT IS A CAPSTONE COURSE?Most programs place capstone courses at the end of the curriculum and emphasize integrative problem-based learning versus a more passive "content acquisition" approach (Elam & Spotts, 2004; Wood, Smith, & Powell, 1995). Professional schools often utilize a consultative project, simulation or other experiential process (Razzouk, Seitz, & Rizkallah, 2003; Zechmeister & Reich, 1994) as the heart of the educational endeavor. This experiential learning context challenges students to address "messy" problems in realistic contexts. Here students have to understand multifaceted problems within the frame of their own mental models rather than that provided by the professor or other text materials. As such, these courses rely upon a constructivist approach to learning (Springer & Borthick, 2004) in contrast to more traditional "sage on the stage" pedagogy. As Davenport et al noted, useful knowledge derives from information combined with experience, context, interpretation and personal reflection (Davenport, De Long, & Beers, 1998). These are the hallmarks of a superior capstone experience. These courses treat learning as a search for better ways to act versus a sole emphasis upon lower order learning outcomes (Cavaleri & Fearon, 2000). In addition to their learning potential, such project-based courses are highly motivating to students, encouraging them to become active participants rather than passive spectators in the learning process (Humphreys, 1981). …

The Impact of Financial Stress on Academic Performance in College Economics Courses

Abstract: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW The increase in the cost of higher education, the decrease in the real median income, and the increase in student debt are all current problems that are often discussed not only by students and parents, but also by political leaders and economic policymakers. Inflation-adjusted tuition at US public four-year higher education institutions has increased by an average of 225% since 1984 and increased by 90% since 2000 (The College Board, Trends in Higher Education, 2015). Real median US household income increased by 8.5% from 1984 to 2013, but it decreased by 8.6% from 2000 to 2013 (US Bureau of the Census, 2014). With tuition rising sharply at the same time that household incomes are falling, it should be no surprise that student college debt is sky-rocketing. Indeed, total student debt in the US rose from $364 billion in 2004 to $966 billion in 2012. In 2010 student debt surpassed credit card debt to become the second largest form of debt after mortgages (Meta, et al, NY Fed). Both the number of students borrowing and the average student debt per person has risen, with the number borrowing rising from 23 million to 39 million and the average debt rising from $15,000 to $25,000 (Meta). Seven of ten college seniors who graduated in 2012 had student loan debt. For those 2012 graduates of for-profit and non-profit colleges, the average student loan was $29,400, with 20% funded by more expensive private loans (Reed & Cochrane). The average student loan for public colleges and non-profits alone was $27,850 per borrower. Students have reacted to the rising cost of higher education in many ways. Some students have coped with rising tuition by working more hours. Research by Kara, Orhan, Bagheri, and Tolin (2009) found a significant, negative relationship between student grades and the number of hours worked. Roughly one-third of students don't buy the required, but expensive, academic materials (Perez-Pena). Students report that lack of information on federal loans and private loans adds to their stress (Denhart, 2013). An increase in financial stress among students, largely due to education expenses, is often reported. Various studies have found anywhere from 33% to 70% of college students experiencing stress due to financial concerns. (Fosnacht and Dong, Perez-Pena, Ross et al., Trombitas, and Rafidah et al.). Several studies report that between 9% and 40% of students feel that financial stress has negatively affected their academic performance. (Perez-Pena, Ross et al., and Trombitas). With the exception of Rafidah et al (2009), who found a relatively weak negative correlation between perceived stress levels and overall grade point average among students in Malaysia, very few, if any, studies have actually measured the impact of financial stress on academic performance. Fosnacht et al (2013) found that students with financial stress perceive a less supportive campus environment, but focused on ways that students cope with stress rather than the impact of that stress on academic performance. Several studies found that financially stressed students were more likely to be employed and work longer hours, leaving less time for study. Financially stressed students were more likely to drop courses and less likely to graduate. (Welbeck et al, Kara et al, Trombitas). The purpose of this research is to determine the impact of financial stress on actual academic performance by measuring the effect of the stress on grades earned in principles of microeconomics and macroeconomics classes at a public, state university. By using a grade earned at the time that the stress is reported, this study seeks to establish a stronger link between the presence of financial stress and its effect on academic performance. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS During the 2012-2013 academic year, 231 students in principles of economics courses answered a survey modeled after the 2012 National Survey of Student Engagement that measured their level of financial stress in several areas, the impact of that stress on aspects of their academic experience, the educational background of their parents, their employment status, and the number of hours worked if they were employed. …

Exploring Knowledge Management in Higher Education Institutions: Processes, Influences, and Outcomes

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Knowledge Management (KM) is recognized as one of the most important management strategies for an organization to create knowledge value that leads to sustainable competitive advantages (Wen, 2009). Many organizations consider KM as a key component of their strategies to create a sustainable competitive advantage in today's knowledge-based society (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 2004). Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) can apply KM practices to support their missions (Ramachandran, Chong, & Wong, 2013). KM assists HEIs in exploring their organizational strategies aimed at increasing knowledge-based activities in line with their institutional goals. Over the past decade, there has been a growing interest in the impact of KM. However, most research projects have been conducted in a business arena. Not many studies have explored KM in academic institutions (Ramachandran et al., 2013). Principles and patterns of KM that are implemented in an educational setting can be similar to (Keeley, 2004) or different from (Thitithananon & Klaewthanong, 2007) application in the corporate sector. Researchers have been studying KM frameworks and various factors that affect KM. The latest two KM meta-analysis studies were conducted by Heisig (2009) and Lehner and Haas (2010). However, their studies focus on the KM application in business. Currently, no published studies explore KM processes and key success factors in an HEI context. This integrative literature review approach will provide insight into studies of KM in HEIs during the last decade. Purpose Statement The purposes of this study are to examine and analyze recent KM literature in the higher education sector and to explore KM processes, influences, and outcomes that are framed in the HEI studies. The study is guided by three research questions: 1. What are the KM processes used in HEIs? 2. What are the KM influences used in HEIs? 3. How does KM impact HEI performance? METHOD To accomplish the research purposes, we use the integrative literature review "a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated" (Torraco 2005, p. 356). This study aims to reconceptualize the existing KM literature in the HEI context. Search Process The search for appropriate literature was conducted in Academic Search Complete (Ebsco) and ProQuest databases using the terms "Knowledge Management" and "Higher Education" and their related expressions (i.e., managing knowledge, KM, university, and college). The initial search using these keywords in the subject field resulted in 195 publications, but most were irrelevant to this study. Thus, we changed the search field by using the title field that provided us more relevant papers. The term "Knowledge Management" first appeared in the ABI Inform Index in 1975 (Serenko & Bontis, 2004). We repeated their process and limited the search with the two aforementioned key terms since our study focuses on how to manage an organizations' knowledge in the higher education context. We used all years available in the databases at the time of the research from 2001 to 2014 (September 30). The search resulted in 27 articles in Ebsco and 17 dissertations in ProQuest. Additionally, we used Google Scholar to increase the number of papers. Google Scholar led to other documents that cited original papers. We reviewed the cited documents of the 4 articles that most related to our research topic. This forward snowballing technique resulted in 8 extra articles for a total of 56 initial papers. Selection Process To screen papers for relevance, we set the inclusion criteria: (1) peer reviewed (for articles), (2) English language, (3) all years available in the database, (4) an empirical study, and (5) focus on research studied in relation to KM processes, influences, and outcomes in the HEI context. …

Online Learning and Student Engagement: Assessing the Impact of a Collaborative Writing Requirement

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The question of how college affects students has been a topic of considerable research within higher education over several decades (Astin, 1993b; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Several studies link student outcomes of learning, persistence, engagement, and satisfaction (Carini, Kuh, & Klein, 2006; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges & Hayek, 2006; Tinto, 1993). Student engagement has been linked to measures of student success including student learning and student satisfaction (Kuh et al., 2006) and, thus, is often examined by universities when seeking to improve student outcomes. Based on a growing body of evidence, institutions of higher education are encouraged to incorporate "high impact educational practices" (Kuh, 2008) which have been shown to be positively associated with student retention and student engagement. One such high-impact educational practice is the use of collaborative assignments and projects. Concurrent with the growing focus on student outcomes has been a growth in online learning opportunities. Whether entire programs or individual courses, the amount of offerings within the online environment is growing. In 2012, the number of students taking at least one online course was 7.1 million, or 33.5 percent of all higher education students, and represented a 6.1 percent rate of growth in one year and over 300 percent since 2003 (Allen & Seaman, 2014). While the conveniences of online learning for students may be readily evident, online learning also presents challenges in terms of engaging students. A recent evaluation of National Survey of Student Engagement results revealed that distance learners, as compared to their on-campus counterparts, were significantly less involved in active and collaborative learning, worked less frequently with other students on projects during class, and worked less frequently with classmates outside of class to prepare class assignments (Chen, Kuh, & Gonyea, 2008). Because student engagement is one of the primary components of effective teaching and effective learning, determining what engages online students with their learning is of critical importance to student success. Updating the Seven Principles for Good Practice, Chickering and Ehrmann (1996) stress the importance of active learning strategies for online learners. Johnson and Aragon (2003) recommend several ways to structure online courses to promote active learning, including organizing online courses around projects and cooperative learning. And, recent efforts have resulted in new measures of student engagement within the online environment (Dixson, 2010). This research project was developed in response to a university initiative to improve student engagement in the online environment. The purpose of the study was to determine whether a collaborative writing project in an online course would promote student engagement and other positive outcomes. Insights from previous studies on active learning were used to design the project, which was then implemented in two sections of an online Business Ethics course. The results suggest the collaborative project had a positive impact on student engagement while a negative impact on some aspects of student satisfaction, particularly satisfaction with faculty support. Based on these results, the author provides practical suggestions on how to promote the positive outcomes associated with collaborative online work while seeking to minimize possible negative consequences on student-faculty interaction. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Significant research has been conducted on how college affects students (Astin, 1993b; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; 2005). Several measures of student success have been used, including student learning, persistence, engagement, and satisfaction, to name a few (Kuh et al., 2006). Some of the earliest work on predictors of student success suggested such success is related to the combination of student characteristics with features of the institution of higher education. …

A Comparison of Teacher Job Satisfaction in Public and Private Schools

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Teachers have come under much criticism recently for a number of issues, including generous pensions, enviable work schedules, and tenure. Combine that with greater demands for assessment and calls for more teacher accountability and it is reasonable to assume that most teachers would be dissatisfied with their jobs. It is important to note, however, that most of the above issues only affect public school teachers; private school teachers do not have generous state-funded pensions nor are they required to partake in state-mandated assessments for their students. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that job satisfaction should be higher among private school teachers than among public school teachers. Interestingly, however, very little research has been conducted on comparing the job satisfaction levels of public school teachers to the satisfaction levels of private school teachers. Most prior research in this area had as their focus teacher job satisfaction in public school settings (Gius, 2013; Moore, 2012; Belfield and Heywood, 2008; Liu and Ramsey, 2008; and Chapman and Lowther, 1982). This lack of research on private school teachers is unfortunate, especially given that, according to the Council for American Private Education, ten percent of all students (pre-K through 12th grade) attend private schools. Hence, not only did prior research ignore a potentially interesting and worthwhile comparison between public and private school teachers, but this research has also ignored a sizable minority of students and their teachers. The present study attempts to rectify that situation and compares the job satisfaction of public school teachers to private school teachers. Using a large sample of teachers from the year 2007, the results of the this study suggest that teachers who work in public schools are much less satisfied with their jobs than are private school teachers; this result is even more striking given that private school teachers earn, on average, 31 percent less than public school teachers. Other noteworthy results are that female elementary school teachers who work in schools that do not offer merit pay and that do not have large percentages of minority teachers were in general more happy with their jobs than other teachers. This article is organized as follows. Section II presents a review of the relevant prior literature on teacher job satisfaction. Section III describes the empirical model and the data used. Section IV presents the results of various statistical techniques, and section V discusses conclusions that can be derived from these results. LITERATURE REVIEW One of the earliest studies conducted on teacher job satisfaction was Chapman and Lowther (1982). Using a survey of 542 University of Michigan graduates who went on to become teachers, job satisfaction was defined as satisfaction with their current employer or satisfaction with their professional development. Two of the primary results of this study were that female teachers had greater job satisfaction than male teachers and recognition received from supervisors contributed to positive job satisfaction. Liu and Ramsey (2008) looked at data from the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the Teacher Follow-Up Survey (TFS) for the years 1999-2001 in order to ascertain the factors that may affect teacher job satisfaction. The authors found that teachers, in general, were not satisfied with working conditions and that less experienced minority teachers were less satisfied than other teachers. According to their results, gender also played a role in teacher job satisfaction, although it varied depending upon the type of satisfaction examined. Belfield and Heywood (2008) used data from SASS for the year 1999 in order to examine teacher job satisfaction. Using an ordered probit analysis, they found that male teachers who were union members and who worked in merit pay schools were less satisfied than other teachers. …

Emotional Intelligence: The Link to Success and Failure of Leadership

Abstract: (ProQuest: ... denotes obscured text omitted.)INTRODUCTION"Everyone knows that high IQ is no guarantee of success, happiness, or virtue, but until Emotional Intelligence, we could only guess why"- Daniel GolemanEmotional intelligence (El) was introduced in the 1990s and has been gaining a lot of attention in the Psychological, Human Resource, Management and Consultancy fields. The rise in popularity has been attributed to the role of emotional intelligence in success and failure of leadership rather than experience, knowledge and competency (Williams, 2013). If so, then what is Emotional intelligence? Research refers to El as the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, as well as the ability to effectively manage our feelings as we interact with others. At base, there are variations in definitions and components; emotional intelligence is usually assessed on four dimensions: Self-awareness, Selfmanagement, Social awareness and Relationship management.El is confirmed as a key component for effective leadership and leaders with high El competencies are able to identify, assess, predict as well as take control of their own emotions as well as that of their team members (Goleman 1995, Mayer & Salovey, 1997, Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998). What happens then to leaders who are clueless on these ideologies? Do these leaders last long in their leadership positions?Therefore, this article focuses on clarifying the concept of Emotional Intelligence and synthesizing the research to provide a review on the exchange of ideas pertaining to the link between El and leadership success or failure, within the scope and context of organizations.EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEEmotional intelligence encompasses abilities such as being able to motivate one self and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope (Goleman, 1995, p. xii). Prior to the introduction of El, the traditional concept of "intelligence quotient" (IQ) as the reason behind our cognitive ability prevailed. Increasingly, however, scholars assert that emotions do facilitate rational thinking and decision making. For example, Haidt (2001) questioned rationalist models and proposed that emotions and intuition drive judgment and reasoning. In addition, Hanoch (2002) agreed that emotion and reason are interconnected. The author suggested that emotions work together with rational thinking and thereby function as an additional source of bounded rationality.El has also been defined as "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. This includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004, p.197). Therefore, El is arguably a type of intellect that requires insight and cleverness.Even though attention has been garnered towards El as an alternative or even replacement of IQ, El is not without criticism. The major criticisms leveled against El are that the definition of El is too broad and of little use (Locke, 2005, Hedlund & Sternberg, 2000). In addition, assessment of the concept is psyehometrieally weak (Davies, Stankov & Roberts, 1998). Locke (2005) was most forceful in calling El a misinterpretation of what is constructed as intelligence. In effect, Locke (2005) asserted that El is not another form of intelligence but rather the ability to grasp abstractions, only that in this case it is specific to emotions.Furthermore, Locke called for relabeling of the concept because he wanted El to be classified as a skill. The critics argue that El has not undergone intense scrutiny in peer reviewed journals (Murphy, 2006). …

What's the Difference? Principal Practices That Support the Achievement of Low-Income Students in Demographically Diverse Schools

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONAs part of the recent accountability movement, which started with the enactment of No Child Left Behind legislation in 2001, most schools have federal and state mandates to close the achievement gap, between low-income students and more affluent students. Research on school leadership shows a strong correlation between school leaders and student achievement (Dumay, Boonen, & Van Damme, 2013; Kelley & Shaw, 2009; Marzano, Water, & McNulty, 2005). Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstrom (2004) claim that school leadership is second only to classroom instruction among all school related factors that contribute to what students learn. This study looks to answer two questions: What supports did the elementary principals in two high-achieving schools provide? Did these supports differ in the high-achieving low-income school? The schools in the study are demographically different: one school has a student population that is primarily high income, and one school is attended by mostly low- income students. Both schools increased student achievement based on state assessment data during the tenure of the principals. The names used in the study are Mary Thomas, the Principal of Monroe Elementary School, which has a student population that is primarily high income, and Gene Stillman, the principal of Gibson Elementary, which is attended by mostly low-income students. Both schools have significantly raised student achievement. Gene led her school to Blue Ribbon School status. The National Blue Ribbon Schools Program recognizes public and private elementary, middle, and high schools where students perform at very high levels or where significant improvements are made in students' academic achievement.METHODOLOGYThis study is a qualitative, cross-case analysis. Interviews and document analysis were used to collect data. Three one-hour interviews were conducted with both principals. One-hour interviews were conducted with 6 teachers in each building. One-hour interviews were conducted with two district office administrators, totalling 20 hours of interview data. Documents such as building plans, parent organization agendas, and Title 1 plans were evaluated. Recorded findings were triangulated. Pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of the cases used in the study.Both of the schools are elementary schools and are within the same school district. Two schools in the same district were sought out to help clearly identify other variables that may have affected student achievement success (teachers, district programs, community initiatives, etc.) and clearly report data to answer the research questions: What supports did the elementary principals in these high-achieving schools implement to increase student achievement? Did these supports differ in the high- achieving low-income schools?Conceptual FrameworkThe conceptual framework for this study comes from chapter six of Bransford, Brown, Cocking, Donovan, and Pellegrino's (2000) book entitled How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. They discuss a Perspective on Learning Environment framework, which identifies four general perspectives of quality learning environments and emphasizes that they need to be conceptualized as a system of interconnected components that mutually support one another (p. 133). These perspectives on learning are (1) learner centered, (2) knowledge centered, (3) assessment centered, and (4) community centered.Learner CenteredFor a learning environment to be learner centered, the educator must pay attention to the "knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting" (Bransford et al., 2000). If knowledge is continually delivered without any thought to the learners, it is unlikely that any real learning will occur. According to the model, it is critical that educators keep their learners in mind when planning lessons. Included in this teaching is "diagnostic teaching" (Bell, O'Brien, & Shiu, 1980). …

Integrating an ERP into the Curriculum at a Business School: The Students' Perceptions of SAP

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONEnterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software has been offering an integrated enterprise- wide database driven management solution for organizations for many years. However from their inception, these systems were generally deployed in larger companies such as those in the Fortune 500 since they required a significant investment for data conversion, business process re- engineering, and the addition of on-going technical support resources. However, as the systemsbecame more focused and more mature, they became increasingly practical for smaller organizations. The availability of cloud-based applications and data storage from ERP providers such as SAP (2014) has dramatically increased that trend. When SAP is implemented via the cloud, companies do not have to have their own servers or tech support personnel on site. This makes the SAP service much easier to implement and much more affordable to support. They now offer implementations that are on-site, on-demand, or mobile according to their Website. SAP also reports that 80% of their customers are small and medium enterprises, (SMEs).As the deployed base of ERP systems grew and spread to a much more diverse type of organization, it became more important that we integrate the use of this technology into our curriculum. This would also assist in meeting an objective where we provide instruction and experience in using technology to assist in making business decisions. To this end, we took advantage of an opportunity to include education and experience in using the SAP system in our curriculum. The approach that we employed was to incorporate exercises that used the actual SAP software in the same manner as it is used in industry. Those SAP-based exercises would allow the students to observe and accommodate the interactions whereby an action or a decision within one business function has an impact upon another business function.In May 2013 our school joined the SAP University Alliance program and partnered with California State University at Chico. This provided access to a cloud-based service that they hosted that employed the SAP ERP system. This academic approach uses a fictitious company called Global Bike, Inc. (GBI). In the fall semester of 2013 the School of Business was able to integrate SAP into our curriculum. This system utilized a mostly comprehensive database that helps trainees interact with the key modules of SAP. Once we integrated SAP into the curriculum, we sought to determine if the current approach is successful in improving the student's attitude toward an ERP system such as SAP, while also increasing their confidence in working with that technology.LITERATURE REVIEWComprehensive reviews of existing ERP literature showed that articles categorized as "education" items focus on uses of ERP in education and on curriculum and course design (Alshare & Lane 2011). Becerra-Fernandez, Murphy & Simon (2000) explored the challenges schools face when integrating the software into the curricula. Bradford, Vijayarama & Chandra (2003) surveyed the extent of adoption by various schools; Nelson & Millet (2001) reported on student's perception on their level of knowledge before and after taking a course on ERP and business processes. Wagner, Majdawi, & Otto (2000) reported results of a study that seek to measure the effect on student's understanding of cross-functional business processes after working with an ERP system.Research on the learning outcomes of incorporating ERP in the business curriculum is still incipient. Davis & Comeau (2004) surveyed students' perspective on the extent of knowledge they gained in an ERP capstone course in terms of understanding the business value of ERP systems, their perceptions of self-efficacy, and their confidence in their ability to contribute as a member of an ERP implementation team or as manager of individuals in an ERP-enabled work environment. Noguera & Watson (2004) tested the effects of learning styles and three instructional delivery methods (lectures with readings, lectures with hands-on transaction exercises, and lectures with simulated transactions) on students' performance, self-efficacy, and satisfaction. …

Lessons from Moocs: Video Lectures and Peer Assessment

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONWhat have professors learned from Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs)? The MOOC course format burst on to the higher education scene in 2012, "The Year of the MOOC," according to the New York Times (Pappano, 2012). Since that time growth in students, courses, and university partners has been phenomenal (Dhawal, 2013). Three major MOOC plat forms (Coursera and edX founded in 2012, and Udacity founded in 2011) have been joined in an increasingly crowded field of providers. Coursera alone reported enrollment of 22,232,448 students, from 190 countries, and across 571 courses by January 2014 (Coursera, 2014).Oxford Dictionaries (n.d.) defines a MOOC as "A course of study made available over the Internet without charge to a very large number of people." This paper uses the term MOOC in the popular sense to refer to the xMOOC, or "broadcast" MOOC (as distinct from the cMOOC or connectivist MOOC)."These (xMOOCs) offered on university-based platforms are modelled on traditional course materials, learning theories and higher education teaching methods. For example, they usually are organized around lectures and quiz-type assessment methods. Also these courses typically use little distributed content that's available on the Web outside the platform. Most course content is pre-recorded video lectures which are posted on the courses' home page" (Morrison, 2013). These archetypical course formats will undoubtedly blend and evolve into different varieties in the future, such as synchronous massive online courses (SMOCS) and distributed open collaborative courses (DOCCs) (Played on, 2013).LESSONS LEARNEDThis paper focuses not on the MOOC movement, but on the practical lessons learned by professors in their role as teachers in higher education. The lessons were gleaned from (1) reports of the experiences of MOOC teachers and learners, (2) the author's experience completing several MOOCs as a learner, and (3) the author's experience as a teacher who incorporated MOOC features into more traditional online and face-to-face courses. The MOOC "lessons" are contrasted with face-to-face and "mainstream" online courses (Johnston, 2014), which have also been called SPOCs, or small online paid-for (private) courses (Playdon, 2013).A number of support people and professors have shared their "lessons learned" from creating and teaching MOOCs, including those from Vanderbilt (Bruff, 2013), the University of London (Grainger, Barney, 2013), the University of Wisconsin (2013). MOOC-like innovations in video, for example, can be used to "bring the investments made by MOOCs to the benefit of a wide range of teachers and students" (Duhring, 2013). A Wall Street Journal "report card" emphasized the role of interaction and engagement in the success of MOOCs (Fowler, 2013)."Lesson learned" discussed in this paper, from MOOCs and as applied to "traditional" courses, include (1) the role of video lectures to deliver content, in lieu of the textbook or live lectures, and (2) the use of peer assessments to provide learner feedback and evaluation.VIDEO LECTURESThe defining characteristic of a MOOC is the use of video to deliver content, at the exclusion of a textbook. MOOCs exclude a textbook to maintain openness. The use of video lectures frees students from obtaining and paying for a textbook. Often a textbook is recommended, but not required to complete a MOOC.MOOC video lectures are typically relatively brief (5 to 20 minutes). Although the "production values" vary, there appears to be a minimum level of quality that is a benchmark for MOOC video. Typically MOOC video lectures will, at a minimum, feature a video recording of the professor (a "talking head"), interspersed or overlaid (such as picture-in-picture) with presentation slide graphics and text.A higher quality level may use a "green s creen" to overlay the instructor video onto graphics or presentation text. Video lectures may include "real-time" recording of the professors "pen" with written annotations, calculations, or sketches (in some calculation-intensive courses the pen is the star). …

Which Helps Accounting Students Learn More: Traditional Homework, Online Homework, or Clickers?

Abstract: HOMEWORK MANAGERS AND CLICKERSTraditional homework may or may not be useful in fostering learning (Lefcort & Eiger, 2003; Paschal, Weinstein, & Walberg, 1984; Peters, Kethley, & Bullington, 2002). Homework's effect depends upon domain (Eren & Henderson, 2011) and students' ability (Eren & Henderson, 2008). Research is also inconclusive about online homework managers. Students sometimes believe that an online homework manager helps their performance (Cutshall & Bland, 2011; Smolira, 2008), and sometimes do not believe that a homework manager has an effect on performance (McCabe & Meuter, 2011).Online homework managers, usually accompanied by electronic versions of the textbooks, are popular add-ons to university textbooks. For example, Wiley, Prentice Hall, McGraw Hill, and Cengage, among other publishers, market online homework managers. The publishers assert that their online materials improve student performance. Wiley commissioned a study that shows that students using the WileyPlus homework management system improved scores during a course more than students not doing traditional homework (BroadviewAnalytics,2011). Prentice Hall states that students grades improve when they use its MyAccountingLab (Speckler, 2010). McGraw hill says that its Connect system is based on research on student study habits (McGrawHill, 2011). However, most independent research shows little or no improvement in student performance when using an online homework manager when compared to using traditional homework (Lee, Courtney, & Balassi, 2010; Palocsay & Stevens, 2008).Students believe that clickers improve performance, and actual performance is often, although not always, higher in class sections that use clickers (FitzPatrick, Finn, & Campisi, 2011). Clickers also improve attendance and increase student engagement (Caldwell, 2007).As students work through assessment materials, they should develop the perception that increased work will improve their learning and test performance. In specific, doing homework should provide repetition that increases student confidence in their test-taking ability. As they do homework, whether online or traditional, they may look up answers in the textbook and practice the concepts taught in the course, improving test scores. Taking clicker quizzes could improve test taking by increasing attention and engagement as well as by providing feedback and content.HI: Students believe that assessment tools improve test performance.a. Students believe that traditional homework improves test performance b.Students believe that online homework improves test performancec. Students believe that clicker quizzes improve test performanceH2 : Assessmen t tools improve test pe rformancea. Traditional homework improves test performance b.Online homework improves test performancec. Clicker quizzes improve test performanceStudents who believe that an assessment method improves test performance probably work harder in that assessment method. For example, students that believe that homework is helpful in obtaining a better test score will probably do more homework.H3: Student perceptions of the helpfulness of assessment tools will be correlated with the extent to which they use those assessment tools fora. Traditional home work b.Online homeworkc. Clicker quizzesMETHODScores and opinions were gathered from students enrolled in an introductory financial accounting class. The class was offered at a public university. In complying with intuitional review requirements, students had the option to be included in the study; students that either indicated that they did not want to participate or who did not answer were excluded from the study. Table 1 gives the demographic information of students who opted to participate or to not participate in the study. Students that did not participate in general performed worse during the class, which may have some effect on the results. …

Having a Ball Catching on to Teamwork: An Experiential Learning Approach to Teaching the Phases of Group Development

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Employers inform us that teamwork skills are among the things that they most value in potential hires. They understand that the ability to work in teams is associated with high performance (Lyons, 2008). Although as academics we frequently give our students team projects and have them work in groups, we rarely explicitly train them to work together. One key element often over looked is the process through which a team moves from initial formation to high performance. There are many models of group formation (Adams, 2009; also see Braaten, 1975 for a discussion of 14 models); however the most popular and recognizable is Tuckman's (1965) Stages of Group Development. Tuckman's model has four or five stages 'forming', 'storming', 'norming' and 'performing' (Tuckman, 1965) and occasionally 'adjourning' (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). This model is intuitively appealing and easily understood, but there is a difference between intellectually understanding it and internalizing the dynamics of the model. By using an experiential approach (Kolb, 1984) it is possible to achieve a deeper level of learning and skill development (Lyons, 2008). In this exercise we bring groups of students through Tuckman's stages of group development. They experience it and internalize it, gaining a deeper understanding of the dynamics involved than is possible from reading, lectures or discussions. TEAMWORK Organizations are interested in teamwork. Teamwork skills are among the most valued skills sought by employers. In the mid 1990's there was a resurgence of in interest in teamwork, and this interest has been steadily increasing. Information and communication technology and the way that it enabled changes in the nature of work causes the resurgence in interest inTeam work. As the technologies emerged, the roles of teams and teamwork in organizations evolved (DeRosa, Hantula, Kock & D' Arcy, 2004; Taborda, 1999). The preponderance of theory building and empirical research into groups and group processes were done in the 1950s and 1960s. The field went essentially dormant in the 1970s and 1980s. The resurgence in practitioner interest in teams facilitated by changes in technology and the nature of work brought renewed interest in teams and teamwork by academics. The advantages and disadvantages of teams are well established (Nurmi, 1996). For example, groups tend to perform better than individuals when the complexity of the task is high because individuals are bounded by intellectual and information processing capabilities (March & Simon, 1958). Groups have an additional advantage because they offer a diverse pool of skills and information (Ray & Bronsein, 1995). However, we know that groups rely less on heuristics than do individuals and take more time to make decisions (Allison, 1971; March & Simon, 1958). We understand that utilizing groups bring the danger of 'social loafing', that is the notion that individuals may not expend as much effort in the group setting as they would have if they were working alone (Latane, 1981), but this can be avoided somewhat if participants are aware that individual effort can be identified (Latane, 1981). The primary types of teams found in traditional organizations with command and control type hierarchies are those where the structure, the methods and procedures, and the function, goal or purpose are fixed or easily determined (Callanan, 2004; Brodbeck, 2002; Taborda, 1999). Within this area are teams with both a short-term and a long term nature. The short-term or temporary teams are formed for a specific task or time period and disband when the time period or task is completed. The long-term team stresses the more permanent nature of work teams compared to previous notions of occasional, ad hoc committees or informal groups (Paulus, 1989). Today there is a call for self-organizing teams or 'pockets of excellence' even in organizations dominated by traditional command and control hierarchies (Brodbeck, 2002). …

Service Learning as Marketing Pedagogy: Practical, Theoretical and Institutional Perspectives

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The successful incorporation of service learning into business curriculum is not something new. However, when it comes to service learning, the field of marketing seems to lag behind other business disciplines, particularly management, as demonstrated by the number of books and academic publications on the topic. The purposes of this paper are to review the state of service learning in higher education and in the academic field of marketing, present a case study of service learning in a marketing course, and to address the practical, theoretical and institutional perspectives of service learning. First, the state of service learning in higher education and, specifically, in the academic field of marketing, will be reviewed. Then, by providing a review of recent publications, service learning as a marketing pedagogy will be put into a broader perspective by discussing the practical, theoretical, and institutional perspectives. Then, a service learning project implemented in a Strategic Electronic Marketing class at the author's University (here after referred to as "the University") is described and put in the context of those perspectives. This paper will enhance marketing educators' practical skills in and implementing service learning projects, as well as deepen their understanding of service learning at the theoretical and institutional levels. THE STATE OF SERVICE LEARNING TODAY Service learning is a pedagogical technique combining academic learning with community service (Klink & Athaide, 2004). Specifically, service learning "is a pedagogical process where by students participate in course-relevant community service to enhance their learning experience all service-learning experiences involve an integration of course material with volunteer service and some form of reflection on or reporting of the outcomes" (Petkus, 2000, p. 64). It can provide a very valuable learning experience by taking classroom content and applying it in a real-life situation. Not only do students use their classroom-acquired knowledge and skills, they also help community members in the process. Munter (2002) describes service learning as a "new" approach to higher education (versus the traditional teacher-centered lecture pedagogical style) where "service-learning courses provide opportunities for developing a sense of purpose and a collective solidarity with the communities in which our universities are embedded" (p. 154). Munter (2002) contends that students need new skills and modes of thinking because of our knowledge-based and multicultural society today, and that service-learning can provide that by offering a learner-centered approach, interaction and collaboration, responsiveness to local communities, by building a community of learners, and providing lifelong learning. Service-learning has central to its approach student empowerment and community empowerment. A variety of benefits of service learning exist. Communication is built as students work with diverse groups of people, reports and reflection papers enhance professional writing skills, cohesion is taught as students work with other students and professionals to achieve common goals and networking skills are learned as students deal with and build relationships with the contacts they make during these projects (Tucker, McCarthy, Hoxmeier, & Lenk, 1998). Service learning activities also have the opportunity to improve interpersonal skills in the work setting and allow students to use analytical tools and concepts to solve a wide range of unstructured problems (Frueh, Hobbs, Kenderdine & Michaelsen 2000). Service learning projects have some common characteristics. First, the project should consist of a learning experience tied to the course. For example, Strategic Electronic marketing students might design a web marketing plan for a non-profit agency. Second, service learning projects should serve a community non-profit agency or for-profit organization and reflection should connect the learning and service together (McCarthy & Tucker, 2002). …

Student Participation and Performance in a Graduate Accounting Theory Class

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONStudents who learn how to participate in class should feel more accepted, confident, and motivated. This enhanced outlook should lead to higher performance in various arenas of a person's life. Thus, encouraging graduate accounting students to participate in classroom discussions should make them feel their input is valued leading to greater engagement with course material. Increased class participation should also lead to a more motivated group of students. Furthermore, increased participation should lead to deeper processing and higher order thinking. This enhanced motivation and thought processing should result in improved performance on multiple measures.The purpose of this paper is to determine, after controlling for variables explaining student performance, if a student's level of participation in classroom discussions has a positive impact on the student's performance in a graduate accounting class. The study collects data on students enrolled in a graduate Accounting Theory class as part of their Master of Accountancy program at the university of study. The course is a traditional theory class involving discussions of non-empirical classic and empirical articles, the conceptual framework, and relevant recent trends in accounting theory development. The class is required during the first semester of coursework. The coursework for the semester grade primarily includes two exams (mid-term and final), an empirical research paper, and a presentation on the research paper. All exams involve essay questions rather than multiple choice questions.The results of this study show that a significant positive relationship exists between student participation and student performance. The more students participated, the better they performed in the class. The improvement in performance from participating was especially significant for communication skills assignments, the research paper and the presentation.Our study contributes to the existing literature by examining the impact of class participation on specific course components, namely graded presentations and research papers. By examining the effect of class participation on individual components of a course, we explore its impact on the development of skills critical to success in business, namely oral communication, written communication and critical thinking. We also examine the impact of participation on learning of course content by examining mid-term and final exam grades. Finally, this study adds to the limited body of research on class participation conducted in a business school context by examining the impact of participation on knowledge and skills in a graduate accounting curriculum.This paper is organized as follows. We first discuss prior research. Next, we discuss the development of our hypothesis. Then, we discuss the sample and methodology of the study. Finally, we provide results from analyzing the data and offer our conclusions and suggestions for future research.Prior ResearchCollege professors often stress the importance of class participation as a means to enhance student involvement in the learning process, especially at the graduate level. In general, the belief is that class participation will lead students to be more engaged in the classroom, more involved with course subject matter, and hence more focused on learning. Multiple studies provide evidence of this view, pointing out the benefits of class participation in making students more active in the learning process (e.g., Cohen, 1991; Lyons, 1989). Dallimore et al (2006) advocate graded class participation and cold calling as means of enhancing participation, finding increased participation frequency and comfort. Furthermore, Hertenstein (1991) asserts that student learning not only benefits from students becoming more engaged in their own learning, but also from hearing views and perspectives from other students.Over the years, participation has been defined in multiple ways in the literature (Rocca, 2010; Petress, 2006). …

The Effect of Machiavellianism on Business Students' Perception of Cheating

Abstract: College cheating has been increasing in the last decades and has received considerable attention in education research. The current study investigates if a negative personality characteristic such as Machiavellianism was related to business students' perception of cheating. A Total of 474 business students in two universities were surveyed to examine this relationship. Results showed that high Machiavellian business students viewed various questionable cheating actions as less unethical compared to other students. These results point to the disturbing result that more negative personality characteristics can have an impact on cheating perception, and possibly cheating behavior. Instructors can benefit from these results when supervising exams and grading other assignments.INTRODUCTIONAcademic dishonesty has received considerable attention in the education literature. Research investigated frequency of cheating, as well as situational, demographic and psychological determinants of cheating. Research in cheating has become multidisciplinary because there are some several psychological aspects to cheating. Business students have received additional attention since research showed that classroom cheating was strongly related to workplace cheating (Sims, 1993).The current study examines demographic and psychological determinants of business students' cheating perception. Specifically, Machiavellianism, a personality disorder characterized by manipulation of others for personal gain, is examined. Demographic factors such as age, gender, class grade and major are also investigated.The paper is organized as follows: A review of the literature regarding business students and cheating as well as determinants of cheating is presented. This is followed by the study's hypotheses and methodology. Finally, results and conclusions are presented followed by suggestions for future research.LITERATURE REVIEWCollege Students and CheatingCollege cheating has received attention in the education and psychology literature. This attention is motivated by the prevalence of such behavior. Generally, research found that cheating in College is less common than cheating in high schools (Lau et al. 2011). However, these findings are not comforting considering that Whitley (1998) found that about 70% of college students in all disciplines admitted to cheating at least once during their college years. More recently, Yardley et al. (2009) surveyed alumni of several universities and found that 82% of respondents cheated at least once during their undergraduate years. Over the years, cheating has evolved from simply copying someone's homework or buying a term paper to more sophisticated schemes involving texting and creative plagiarism (Liebler 2012).College cheating has many negative consequences. McCabe et al. (2006) noted that not only the cheater suffers negative consequences such as punishment and loss of reputation but noncheaters can also suffer as a result of the cheater's behavior. For example, pervasive cheating in a university can result in stricter standards and less flexibility offered to all students as well as greater faculty distrust of all students. In addition, the overall reputation of the university can also suffer (McCabe et al. 2006). More serious consequences can occur if college cheating was a predictor of workplace or personal cheating. Although many undergraduate students disagree with this theory and argue that college cheating is only temporary (Reall et al. 1998), research shows some truth to this relationship. Students who cheated in college were more likely to shoplift (Beck and Ajzen, 1991), cheat on their income taxes (Fass, 1990) and engage in unethical workplace behavior (Nonis and Swift 2001).Determinants of College CheatingThree types of determinants of college cheating have been advocated: Situational, demographical and psychological. In general, increased class sizes, decreased surveillance, and close seating arrangements have been important factors in the frequency of student cheating (Whitley, 1998). …

Business Leadership Education: A Virtual Storytellers Exercise

Abstract: Online courses are becoming popular in business education and require creative strategies to maintain students ' engagement and facilitate contextual and complex understanding of class concepts and theories. In this paper, we are proposing an exercise for online undergraduate Organizational Behavior courses to motivate students and enhance their understanding of class concepts through the use of storytelling. In this exercise, students work in teams to narrate stories that describe with rich detail different concepts and theories pertaining to team management in general and virtual team management in particular. The results suggest that students develop a higher level of critical thinking in virtual team management by storytelling and develop strong relations with other members of their virtual teams.Key concepts: storytelling, online education, organizational behavior, virtual teams.INTRODUCTIONThe demand for online courses is experiencing an impressive growth in business education (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). Questions have been raised regarding the effectiveness of online courses in comparison with the delivery of these same courses in the classroom. Online students report lower levels of overall satisfaction with online courses and with the mode of instruction used in online courses. They rate their professors lower than in classroom settings, and express lower levels of interest in the subject matter when delivered online (Kartha, 2006).In this paper, a semester-long exercise, called the Storytellers Exercise is introduced in an Organizational Behavior (OB) course. Its purpose is to improve complex and contextual understanding of OB concepts and theories, enhancing recollection of class materials, and motivating and engaging students through a creative and fun activity. The Storytellers Exercise was designed to generate highly interactive virtual team experiences for students in online OB courses and to foster learning through active and systematic reflection on OB concepts and their own experiences using storytelling.This paper is structured in three parts. In the first part, we review recent literature to discuss the potential of storytelling as a teaching tool. Then, we describe the Storytellers Exercise and its key elements. Finally, we share some results of the exercise and their implications for student virtual team learning and engagement.STORYTELLINGStorytelling is a powerful communication tool. In organizations, leaders use stories to convey their passion for their vision and inspire their followers (Guber, 2007). Stories help the transformational leader align their followers' understanding of the complexities and dangers in the status quo and convey the importance of their vision to advance that state of the organization for the better (Conger, 1999). In TED Talks, for example, the power of storytelling is demonstrated in the worldwide popularity of their presentations, which captivate a worldwide audience in the discussion of concepts that are often technical and complex through the narration of stories. In addition to being a communication tool, storytelling can also be used, by integrating stories, to make sense of events and construct experiences (Gephart, 1991; Morgan & Dennehy, 2004), helping individuals manage their tacit knowledge and make it explicit (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001). Shamir and Eilam (2005), for instance, explain the value of stories in the development of the authentic leader, who uses the narration of a personal story in making sense of who they are. Authentic leaders evaluate the importance of their different values and how those drive their behaviors throughout their lives by exploring and telling their personal story.In education, storytelling is frequently used to attract students' interest to the theories and concepts discussed in class, often as a hook for the introduction of new class material. Using stories facilitates students' recollection of class concepts and enhances students' understanding of the complexity of these materials (Down & King, 1999; Harbin & Humphrey, 2010). …

Developing an Evidence-Based Management Approach for Creating High-Performance Higher Educational Institutions

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Traditionally, research in the field of education has often focused on improving the quality of teaching in higher educational institutions (Kennedy, 2011; Almayali & Bin Ahmad, 2012; Diaz-Mendez & Gummesson, 2012; Al-Khasawneh & Moh'd Futa, 2013) and, to a lesser degree, on the quantity and quality of research output (Abdulsalam & Mawoli, 2012; Aydin, 2012; Nisei & Nisei, 2013). This does not really come as a surprise considering that a high quality of teaching is generally seen as an important driver for the development of a country (Wang, 2001, Salmi, 2009; Ramaprasad, 2011). In recent years, the quality of teaching has come increasingly under pressure from the global trend toward massification and internationalization of higher education, i.e. the large influx of new students, and increasing numbers of (international) students looking for better and more diverse education, while at the same time education budgets are under pressure because of the aftereffects of the economic crisis (Auguste et al., 2010; Parker, 2013). This forces institutions to expand, improve and diversify while having fewer resources available. They have to manage the expanding student body as well as the accompanying increases in facilities, staff, lectures, and courses; maintain and improve the quality of teaching, facilities, and curriculum; obtain sustainable funding; improve labour market attractiveness of students; increase managerial and staff capacities, and innovate both the teaching and management processes of the institution (Harrison-Walker, 2009; Pacuraru, 2012). Some scholars even predict 'an avalanche' which is going to change the education sector fundamentally, because three fundamental challenges need to be addressed globally: (1) universities and new providers need to ensure that the education they provide to their students will increase their employability; (2) the cost of education and the quality of education (and research) need to be separated so both can be managed individually; and (3) the entire learning ecosystem needs to be redesigned in order to support alternative providers which tailor to the future needs of both the work environment and new students (Barber et al., 2013). Higher education institutions that manage to thrive in this dynamic environment and achieve sustainable high results are qualified as high performing institutions. Unfortunately, to paraphrase Altbach (2004), the paradox of these high performing institutions is that ' everyone wants one, no one knows what it is, and no one knows how to get one. ' The literature, however, does provide several characteristics of high-performance higher educational institutions. Auguste et al. (2010) describe the strategies of highly productive institutions, which define productivity as the percentage of students that graduate within a set period of time, by systematically enabling students to reach graduation, reducing non-productive credit courses, redesigning the delivery of teaching, redesigning core support services, and optimizing non-core services and other operations. Based on research at Brazilian universities, Zoghbi et al. (2013) argue that students' social-economical characteristics, student/faculty ratio, and capital input play a role in the productivity of an educational institution. Altbach & Salmi (2011) identified, in their review of world-class research universities, the following key success factors: attract, recruit, and retain leading academics; have abundant funding in place for setting up first-rate facilities and physical infrastructures and for attracting and retaining high-level academics; and have an appropriate regulatory framework with strong and inspiring leadership. They also identified five 'accelerating factors' that may further the creation of world-class research universities: (1) convince large numbers of overseas scholars to return to their country of origin; (2) use English as the institution's main language; (3) limit the number of disciplines; (4) use benchmarking to compare oneself with other excellent institutions and to learn from that comparison; and (5) introduce a distinctive curriculum and pedagogical innovations. …

Factors Influencing Graduates Recruitment Decisions: The Case of Tanzania Corporate Recruiters

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Recruitment is among the core functions of organizations and effective deployment of human capital has clearly been recognized as a key contributor to organizational effectiveness (Ahmed, 2009). According to Richardson (1989) recruitment impact most critically the performance of an organization and acquiring and retaining high-quality talent is critical to an organization success. Following changes in the labour market, factors such as mass enrolment in Higher Education Institutions (Tan & French-Arnold, 2012) and advancement in technology (Hager, Holland & Veckett, 2002; Datta, 2001) have changed the way organizations recruit graduates (Steiner & Gilliland, 1996; Anderson & Witvliet, 2008). Indeed, technological change and globalization continue to increase the demand for skilled workers that can operate successfully in the global environment (Karoly, 2010). In this context, organizations are becoming more flexible and responsive and accordingly are changing their preferred recruitment channels in response to changing labour market conditions (Russo & Gorter, 2000; Russo, Gorter & Schettkat, 2001). Studies on recruitment have focused on applicant attraction to organizations (Larsen & Phillips, 2002; David, 2005; Celani & Singh, 2011), recruitment sources (Rynes, 1989) and employers' recruitment behaviour (Behrenz, 2001; Gorter & Rietveld, 1996; DeVaro, 2005) with the later studies; addressing little on how corporate recruiters recruit new graduates. Gorter & Rietveld (1996) argues that recruiters prefer advertisements as the first recruitment channel when applicants are required to have work experience. Additionally, employers search for personal qualities and characteristics such as professional knowledge, personal engagement and social competence (Behrenz, 2001) characteristics less reflected to new graduates. Few studies have conceptualized and empirically address the processes and mechanisms explaining how personal characteristics and in particular skills attributes may influence corporate recruiters' decision during recruitment of new graduates (Stewart & Knowles, 2000; Mora & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, 2009). Recruitment of new graduates by corporate recruiters brings with it different decision making strategies making the subject of interest to explore. This study addresses this gap by creating empirically grounded propositions on how corporate recruiters make recruitment decisions during recruitment of new graduates in the Tanzanian context. The study responds to the questions; what recruitment strategies do corporate recruiters use to obtain employable and qualified new graduates? What skills attributes do corporate recruiters consider important when making decisions within the recruitment and selection process? What tools and criteria do corporate recruiters use to assess the possession of the skills attributes among new graduates during recruitment process? Abel, Deitz & Su (2014) define a recent graduate as a graduate who is twenty-two to twenty-seven years old and has graduated within the first five years. In this study, a new or a recent graduate falls within the age range, but should have graduated a bachelor's degree within the first three years. Literature review was conducted to establish the state of art on recruitment channels, potential screening tools and selection criteria used by corporate recruiters. Interviews were conducted with 22 corporate recruiters in Tanzania, firms that operate at local, national and multinational levels. Study findings show that recruiters use formal recruitment channels to attract new graduates. Recruitment from all disciplines is common in auditing and banking financial institutions. In relation to screening of the applicants, there is a growing trend towards using tests particularly aptitude tests to screen applicants views also shared by Branine, 2008. Besides assessing graduates soft skills; employers also demand basic technical and general knowledge from the applicants the attributes that are assessed during interview process. …

Developing Critical Thinking within a Master of Science in Leadership Program

Abstract: Critical thinking involves an important set of competencies, skills, and behaviors that can be systematically developed and cultivated. Critical thinking is fostered within the Master of Science in Leadership Program to help students achieve higher levels of thinking through the program and also to help them improve their leadership acumen. The paper describes critical thinking, provides background on the Paulian view of critical thinking used within the program, and presents the approach used to infuse critical thinking into the curriculum. The Master of Science in Leadership Program introduces critical thinking in the first required course and weaves critical thinking concepts and exercises throughout the entire program. Program administrators and course developers incorporated desired learning points into the curriculum through conceptual frameworks, active learning activities, targeted instructional techniques, and intellectual moves. Each of those components is part of a schema that ensures students engage concepts at the highest analytical levels within their individual contexts as leaders.Topic Area: Leadership EducationKeywords: Critical thinking, leadership, online learning, distance education, instructional strategiesINTRODUCTIONLeaders reason through emergent situations. In environments of rapid change, application of old solutions do not always work with new problems. Complex, adaptive environments require leaders who think. The Master of Science in Leadership (MSL) program incorporates critical thinking at its core. Critical thinking is considered a foundational set of competencies, skills, and behaviors that can be systematically developed and cultivated.While critical thinking is widely recognized as important and institutions are developing instructional tools to enhance critical thinking development, academics are still puzzled on how to teach critical thinking. Many students are not aware of their thought processes and do not approach reasoning in a disciplined or systematic way (Scott, 2014). To address the gaps in our students' thought processes, the MSL provides explicit critical thinking instruction throughout the program and uses a critical thinking assessment to assess understanding of basic critical thinking skills. From a programmatic perspective, administrators are interested in ensuring that students improve their critical thinking skills and that improvements persist over the duration of the program.The importance of having students thinking at the highest levels served as the impetus to infuse critical thinking in the Leadership program at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide (ERAU-WW). The MSL is a comprehensive leadership development program.Critical thinking is introduced in the first required course and systematically developed through each subsequent course. In the MSL program, the readings, learning activities, assignments, discussions and tests that permeate each week's activities throughout the courses and program have critical thinking components. The students begin by learning critical thinking concepts and carry those concepts through each activity outlined in the program. To expose how we have done this, we define and discuss critical thinking, provide relevant background on our MSL program, describe our approach to critical thinking in our program and explain the activities we use to teach both leadership and critical thinking concepts.CRITICAL THINKINGCritical thinking, with origins dating back to ancient Greece, emerged as a focal point of modern education. The modern movement of critical thinking in education gained momentum with the implementation of California Executive Order 338 in 1980 and the release of the U.S. Government report, A Nation at Risk in 1983. California Executive Order 338 mandated critical thinking instruction in the California State University system and A Nation at Risk recommended critical thinking be at the forefront of all educational levels. …

Business Communication Course Redesigned: All Written and Oral Communication Assignments Based on Building Career Skills

Abstract: METHOD To measure whether the proposed changes and additions to the business communications course added significant value, thirty--former business communications students (all of them graduates and employed; many serving as directors, managers and executives of companies) were emailed a survey letter asking them to compare the original course to the new course. Tables with the original course content and the new course content were included along with a side-by-side comparison table for clarifying additions and changes. In summary, the letter asked the former students to: Note the differences between Table 1 and Table 2. In Table 2, section B is significantly different. SWOT, informational interviews, and networking assignments have been added. Do you believe the additions, in Table 2, add value to the course? Why or why not? Please write your comments regarding the additions found in Table 2 (Part B) in an email reply. Three of the emails were returned as undeliverable. Twenty-three of the twenty-seven, emailed business students responded to the survey. Twenty-two of the twenty-three respondents indicated that the new course added significant value. In addition to the overall positive responses, SWOT., mock interviews and networking were specific components of the new course that received the greater part of the positive feedback. And, while the bulk of the comments, regarding the components of the new course were positive, a few respondents noted that, in their opinion, some of the new course components could be modified; and that some components may be less important than others. Some respondents offered constructive suggestions for improving the course. Collectively, there were twenty-two pages of comments. Some of the more consistent and more salient comments are included below. In a few cases, respondents had very different views (please see, for example, 2. and .8) 1. I enjoy the changes that you are making in the program and think that they will benefit many students to come. Memos have become irrelevant, so I am glad that section is changing. I love the SWOT analysis. While many people talk about this analysis, few show how it can change a company. With the SWOT analysis, I think it would be vital to have students write a business plan using their own analysis. 2. I have to say that I would prefer the Table 1 version. As a student, I would have hated doing the interviews, searches for job announcements, mock interviews and community service. All those elements are important, but possibly for a class focused on career placement, not this class. 3. After reviewing the letter, Table 1, Table 2 and the comparison document, I feel the updated course curriculum would better prepare a business student for a future career. The updated curriculum seems less hypothetical and more focused on helping the student understand who they are. Businesses are taking a more informal approach to writing.... When I ask professional copywriters their thoughts on rules regarding grammar, their answer is always, "Grammar rules are very vague and ever changing. As long as you maintain consistency and avoid spelling errors, you will be safe." ... A good portion of these students may already have careers. To help the working student, have them write something for their company. 4. I like how you have replaced the "contrived" with real experiences, real reflections, real self-awareness, real aspirations and real steps to obtain the desired outcome. Too many students graduate and fall into jobs that they don't want, that don't fit their natural abilities and ultimately don't bring fulfillment. Also, I would encourage the instructor to consistently remind students that nearly all business leaders have an open door policy when it comes to helping students. Nothing is more American than helping a student. In contrast, once a student graduates almost no insiders will talk to them. Think about it. …

The Importance of Cognitive Style in Information Retrieval Tasks

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Accounting and business decisions often require database applications to convert raw data into useful business information (Hayes and Hunton, 2000). Modern accounting information systems use relational databases (Hooper and Page, 1996). Accounting academicians and professionals generally agree that accountants and auditors must become proficient with information systems technology, such as database management systems (DBMS) and information retrieval techniques (Borthick, 1996), particularly so they will not need to rely as heavily on the expertise of computer professionals (Hooper and Page, 1996). The AICPA information technology section also has identified database technology as one of the top ten information technologies with which accountants must be familiar (Anonymous, 1994). In addition, the CPA exam recognizes the importance of Information Technology (IT) topics and focuses a large part of the Business Environment Concepts exam on IT subjects relating to business (AICPA, 2010). Formerly, information systems (IS) professionals were responsible for query tasks on behalf of end-users (Borthick, 1992). Today, however, accounting system queries can be easily performed by end-users because current database technology is more user friendly (Hooper and Page, 1996). In order to perform these query tasks, these end-users (such as accountants, auditors, and managers) must understand both the database structure and the available query language (Leitheiser and March, 1996). The availability of accounting data is communicated through the use of a database structure representation (Dunn and Grabski, 2002). This representation details the stored data items and their logical organization. Examples of such representations are the entity-relationship (ER) model and the relational model. Ability to access data of interest also requires knowledge of a database query language. Examples of such languages are query-by-example (QBE) and structured query language (SQL). Prior research on end-user performance in query construction tasks has not resulted in clear conclusions about the effect of database representation type, query tool type, and user characteristics. According to Dunn and Grabski (2002), this is a relatively new research field and these factors should be studied further to determine their combined effects on query writing performance. Users of accounting information are not homogeneous. Neither are the database technologies used in accounting information systems homogeneous. Different users possess particular user characteristics that can impact their performance in writing queries (e.g., age, gender, educational background, experience, and cognitive style). Therefore, this study uses both accounting participants and MIS participants as a proxy for the groups of potential end-users. This is the first study to explicitly include user characteristics in the research model. Only one study attempted to manipulate both the database structure representation and the query language (Chan et al., 1993). Similarly, the current study manipulates both the data model and the query language. No prior studies have investigated the interaction between the two factors or included user characteristics as part of the research model. The current study solves this problem by measuring user cognitive styles and analyzing the main effects as well as the interaction of the different factors affecting the end-user query performance. By better understanding how the end-user's cognitive style affects performance organizations can improve the way in which they train their employees on database concepts. By implementing separate sessions based on user's cognitive styles organizations would be able to more efficiently and effectively train employees. This would enable end-users to perform query tasks at a higher level with a lower investment in training. Also by understanding what effect cognitive styles can have on query performance professionals can improve their abilities by understanding what best suits their own particular. …

The Value of an Accounting Internship: What Do Accounting Students Really Gain?

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Many accounting students complete an internship as part of their educational experience before graduation. Several studies have documented the benefits of internship experiences (Callanan & Benzing, 2004; Cannon & Arnold, 1998; Gault, Redington, S Gault, Leach, & Duey, 2010; Kessler, Danko, & Grant, 2009; Knechel & Snowball, 1987; McCombs & VanSyckle, 1994; Paisey & Paisey, 2010; Rigsby, Addy, Herring, & Polledo, 2013; Violette, Violette, & Hendrix, 2013). These advantages include solidifying students' choice of major, allowing employers to make connections with the most promising students for recruiting purposes, giving students a practical experience that enhances their ability to work with others, improving students' subsequent academic performance, and providing students' with career advantages. However, the specific skills students develop from an internship experience and how these align with what employers hiring full-time accounting students need has received little attention. In addition, the differences in skill development between student interns is not discussed. From the employer perspective, prior research has identified the skills they require. Pernsteiner (2013) interviewed ten recruiters from small to large CPA firms (including two of the Big 4 firms) as well as from private organizations and found that the top skill they looked for in candidates they hired was communication. In fact, the majority of the skills identified by the employers were soft skills rather than hard skills. Soft skills include people skills and personal attributes while hard skills are the technical expertise and knowledge that people need to know to perform specific tasks (Robles, 2012). The recruiters mainly used a student's grade point average to assess technical competence during the screening process and to determine whom to interview (Pernsteiner, 2013). Others have also documented the importance of soft skills for accountants in the workplace (Kermis & Kermis, 2010; Lin, Grace, & Krishnan, 2010; Meeting of the minds, 2008; Violette & Chene, 2008) and in business in general (Amato, 2013; Davos, 2013). In addition to communication, other skills identified by employers included selfconfidence, the ability to manage time effectively, people skills, initiative, integrity, work ethic, and problem solving skills (Pernsteiner, 2013). These are similar to results found by Robles (2012) in a survey of business executives. The top ten soft skills executives wanted their employees to possess were communication, courtesy, flexibility, integrity, interpersonal skills, a positive attitude, professionalism, responsibility, teamwork, and work ethic (Robles, 2012). Considering that accounting employers require these skills for employment, it is important to understand where in an accounting student's educational career they are developed, and perhaps more importantly, if there are some skills that are not developed that need to be. One of the activities that many accounting students participate in is an internship experience. Considering that this is a hands-on learning experience, it is likely that interns develop many of these skills. Several studies have investigated various aspects of internships and skills. For example, Green, Graybeal, and Madison (2011) considered whether business student perceptions of the traits that are important to employment decisions are affected by an internship experience, as well measured the changes in student values of these traits before and after an internship experience. This study examined student and employer perceptions of the importance of soft skills, but not which skills students developed over the course of the internship. Cook, Parker, and Pettijohn (2004) surveyed business interns over a 10-year period and found the majority agreed that they learned to work with a variety of different types of people and matured personally through their internship experience. …

Student Locus of Control and Online Course Performance: An Empirical Examination of Student Success in Online Management Courses

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONA recent 2014 survey by the Babson Survey Research Group and co-sponsored by the Online Learning Consortium found that well over 6.7 million students reported taking one or more online course, a 3.7 percent increase from 2013. Thirty-two percent of higher education students now take at least one course online. The percent of academic leaders rating the learning outcomes in online education as the same or superior to those in face-to-face was 74.1%. The proportion of chief academic leaders that say that online learning is critical to their long-term strategy is at a new high of 69.1 percent. (onlineleamingconsortium.org/2014Survey).Eduventures estimates that in 2011, almost 3 million students were enrolled in fully online programs (Eduventures, 2012). Many other programs provide a portion of their course delivery through online coursework. The same study forecasts the future growth of web-based courses over the next decade to average around forty percent annually. Moreover, distance delivery of curriculum is now becoming a standard medium for supplementing or replacing traditional classroom teaching (Dolezalek, 2003; Drago Peltier & Sorensen, 2002). For many institutions, the increased demand by students for online courses and improvements in web-based technology have made this an economical and useful way to increase student enrollment. The increasing availability of distance education reveals the growing importance of this method of instruction.The increase in distance education offerings is directly related to the development of the internet and technologies that support online learning. Online education appears to be dramatically altering the education landscape. Although innovative technologies are important for the development of online course delivery, they are not sufficient to assure that distance education is effective. Online course delivery poses a whole set of unique problems that must be cleverly addressed. Moreover, despite the increased growth and interest in online management education, research surrounding its effectiveness is significantly sparse (Hay et al., 2004a; Martins & Kellermanns, 2004; Zapalska & Brozik, 2006). Future growth of online education will depend on the ability of educators and administrators to assure that this type of education delivery system will prepare students to meet today's competitive challenges (Dolezalek, 2003; Hay et al., 2004b). Clearly, not enough is understood about how to best plan, implement, and to evaluate online courses (Peltier et al., 2003). Pedagogical theories and approaches to effective teaching are needed in online learning environments (Arbaugh, 2002).Online courses by their very nature are a unique form of course delivery. Many of the traditional methods of delivery in a brick and mortar classroom do not transfer well to the webbased environment. Therefore, online course delivery may have unique issues regarding student success. One such issue may be how well a student deals with the self-directed study nature of online courses. Considerable thought should be applied in the design of online courses, with particular attention paid to how students can more easily move through course content. This paper examines student success in online management principles courses and how that success may be linked to individual student self-motivation. We are interested in knowing whether a student's locus of control will be a partial determinant of their success in online courses. This information in turn can be used in course planning and teaching strategies for online course development.The next section of this paper provides a review of the extant locus of control literature. The remainder of the paper details the hypotheses, methodology, and results and concludes with a discussion.Literature reviewLocus of control (LOC) was first introduced in 1954 by Julian Rotter (Rotter, 1954). It is conceptualized as an individual's perception of the source of control over their destiny or actions (Gershaw, 1989). …

The Critical Role of Assessment in Faculty Governance

Abstract: Despite increasing demands, faculty members within higher education continue to resist assessment practices as either incompatible with academic freedom or with genuine instruction within their disciplines. This paper suggests that some of this resistance can be attributed to conflicting meanings given to the term assessment by different interest groups. When understood as formative and focused on classroom learning, assessment becomes a powerful tool for faculty governance. When faculty authentically assess student learning from within the specialized knowledge of their fields, they gain an opportunity to exercise a powerful influence over curriculum and university structures. This paper suggests helpful resources and five practical steps that faculty may take to use assessment data in order to maintain control over the content of their disciplines as well as a voice the university governance by showing that students are learning what the faculty as experts have determined is essential to a field of study.When the Spellings Commission released its report in 2006, A Test of Leadership, it was by no means the first the committee to offer a critical assessment of American higher education. However, that document in particular remains powerfully representative of the contemporary climate that is critical of the purpose, quality, and lack of accountability of higher education in the United States today. Of the areas for concern listed in the report's summary, four continue to shape public discourse about the effectiveness of colleges and universities: 1) the high cost of education that results especially from the lack of incentive to reduce inefficiency and improve productivity, 2) the decreasing ability of graduates to think critically, write well, and solve problems within the world of work, 3) the lack of collection and of clear reporting on students' educational performance, and 4) the inability to innovate and pursue "entrepreneurial" methods of growth.In response, institutions of higher learning are placing greater emphasis than ever on institutional effectiveness through the practice of assessment. What exactly assessment means in this context is ambiguous, especially in relation to student learning and faculty governance. Although it implies an evaluation of the results of instruction, confusion ensues when an institution adopts assessment to measure education against the criteria like those of the Spellings Commission. Assessment threatens to measure institutional effectiveness in ways that outside constituents might find meaningful but does not necessarily correspond with faculty goals for learning or for a university as an institution. It quickly follows the faculty, whose governance within the university is largely based on their expertise to determine and present a curriculum, feel themselves subjected to a system of accountability that has little relation to the practices or content of their disciplines. Responding effectively to this new emphasis on assessment as institutional effectiveness, faculty must first appropriate assessment as that which improves learning and then must use it to maintain their role in determining when a student has achieved the credentials appropriate to the discipline that has been studied.The ambiguity of the term assessment results from its modern history in education. Ewell describes the late 1980's as the point of origin for two assessment paradigms. The accountability paradigm is rooted in a report by the U.S. Department of Education in 1983 that was highly critical of primary and high school education. As a result, states turned to assessment as a way to account for school effectiveness. This paradigm spilled over into universities so that by 1990 over half of the states had mandated some form of assessment for accountability. Similarly, in 1992, the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act of 1965, brought additional scrutiny of learning goals, this time by the federal government. …

An Exploratory Study of the Effects of Exhaustion and Social Support on Business Students' Persistence

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Stress, Burnout, and Exhaustion in University Business Students Psychological distress among university students has been found to be significantly higher than among general population groups (Adlaf, Gliksman, Demers, & Newton-Taylor, 2001), and student experiences associated with academic stress can have short and long-term negative consequences (Orem, Petrac, & Bedwell, 2008), including not completing a degree (Vaez & Laflamme, 2008). Stress and its negative outcomes may persist long into the future impacting well-being and efficacy (Law, Sweeney, & Summers, 2008; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Sweeney & Summers, 2002). Unfortunately, a number of different definitions of stress exist (Lyrakos, 2012), and this has resulted in a number of inconsistencies regarding measures and modeling. In regards to stress research in higher education, a particularly difficult issue is measuring stress solely resulting from academic activity, independent of other possible sources of stress (e.g. employment, relationships, and finances). One stress construct that has been widely represented in the psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior research literatures is job burnout (Ahola, Honkonen, Isometsa, Kalimo, Nykyri, Koskinen, Aromaa, & Lonnqvist, 2006; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Daraiseh, & Salem, 2006; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach et al., 2001; Maudgalya, Wallace). The construct has been operationalized for the study of student burnout (Balogun, Helgemoe, Pellegrini, & Hoeberlein, 1996; Schaufeli, Martinez, Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, 2002; Weckwerth & Flynn, 2006; Yang & Farn, 2005), and many of these studies are specific to a certain university majors. Of note, however, is the general paucity of burnout research in business students despite a number of studies examining the construct in business professionals (Babakus, Cravens, Johnston, & Moncrief, 1999; Law et al., 2008; Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Moore, 2000; Sweeney & Summers, 2002). In one burnout study, Law (2007) did find that accounting student participation in co-curricular activities suggests higher levels of engagement the positive antithesis of burnout. Burnout is a psychological stress syndrome marked by a prolonged negative response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors at work (Ahola et al., 2006; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach et al., 2001). As this construct uniquely captures stress resulting exclusively from job experiences, it qualifies as a useful tool in assessing and researching stress related solely to coursework in university students, including business majors. Further, exhaustion, defined as the "depletion of emotional and mental energy needed to meet job demands" (Moore 2000, 336), represents the basic stress dimension and is the most thoroughly analyzed and reported component of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001). Someone who describes himself as experiencing burnout is generally referring to feelings of exhaustion (Maslach et al., 2001). They feel overextended, experience a diminution of energy and often abhor the thought of going to work (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Gaines & Jermier, 1983; Lee & Ashworth, 1993; Maslach, 1982; Maslach et al., 2001). As exhaustion is central to and synonymous with the burnout syndrome (Maslach et al., 2001), it is the focus of this study involving university business students. As a result of its chronic and intensely affective nature (Gaines & Jermier, 1983), exhaustion carries with it only negative outcomes (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Individuals who experience high levels of exhaustion often find their passion and commitment for work replaced by feelings of frustration and anxiety (Maslach & Leiter, 1997) and can suffer from physical and mental problems and strained relationships (Maslach & Jackson, 1986: Maslach et al., 2001). Organizations are adversely affected by exhausted individuals through lower productivity, absenteeism, and higher turnover (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Maslach & Leiter, 1997). …

Excel Training & the Technology Student Learning Outcome

Abstract: IntroductionStudents' and graduates' advanced competencies in the use of industry-standard spread sheet software are required by professionals in the field (K. Falk, personal communication, April, 2014) and are mandated by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants' (AICPA) professional competencies to enter the accounting profession (AICPA, 2005). Use of spread sheets for analysis of data, calculations, and financial analysis are among the skills tested on the CPA examination (Board of Examiners, 2009). According to K. Falk, Padgett Strademann & Co., a mid-sized regional CPA firm with about 40 partners in Houston, Austin, and San Antonio, are generally surprised at the lack of Excel skills among students in their intern classes. They have inquired specifically about the preparation and Excel requirements included in the Master of Science in Accounting degree's curriculum, and have commented that an Excel certification requirement in Intermediate Accounting would be a positive way to set students apart when they apply for jobs. Accounting faculty need to teach these skills, and measure the results of their teaching (ACBSP, 2014). This paper reports the results of efforts to teach, and measure the results of teaching, the requisite skills in the use of industry-standard spread sheet software, in the junioryear intermediate accounting classrooms.LiteratureLow scores on internship supervisors' ratings of accounting students' use of technology, including Excel, showed accounting students may not meet student learning outcome goals with regard to the use of technology (Elrod & Tiggeman, 2011). A recent study of business employers' expectations for technological proficiencies of business school graduates indicated there was a wide gap between students' perceptions of their skill levels and their actual proficiencies (Bingi, Karim, & Rassuli, 2013). Students' motivation and learning were enhanced with their skill in using spreadsheets for problem solving (Clayton & Sankar, 2009).Birge (2004) showed that students can improve performances after instruction in Excel. In his study, students had previous training in modeling techniques and theory, but no training using the high-end Microsoft® Excel tool Solver. After training, students' performances in solving sophisticated travel scheduling problems improved significantly, and the improvements appeared to have been caused by the training, as there were no other important casual factors (e.g., gender, etc.) identified.In a study in a school of nursing, which may be analogous to a professional accounting program, the use of Microsoft® Excel in teaching a core competency required by a professional organization was addressed (DiMaria-Ghalili & Ostrow, 2009). Students had no previous Excel experience, but were able to become comfortable and report positive feedback using Excel as a research tool in a professional environment. The authors concluded Excel skills effectively incorporated in the academic context could produce useful professional skills.MethodThe strategy employed in this study was to test a treatment group before and after spread sheet training in upper division intermediate accounting classes, and to compare the results of those tests to results produced by a control group from other accounting classes that did not participate in the training, using the pretest-posttest non-equivalent groups quasi-experimental design described by Trochim (2001). Results were compared, using ttests, for differences in the mean scores of the treatment group to the mean scores of the control group.The treatment group of student participants received online training in Excel skills through a Microsoft® Excel certification program (MOS), in addition to their normal handson training in the accounting classes, and they took separate Microsoft® Excel certification tests documenting their absolute skills levels. The control group received no special training in addition to their normal hands-on training in the accounting classes. …

Ethics and Morality: What Should Be Taught in Business Law?

Abstract: INTRODUCTIONEthics has been a hot topic in the business world for many years as examples of ethics gone wrong continue to put the topic in the lime light, both in the media and in business schools. The AACSB has found ethics to be important enough to the education of business students that it requires ethics be a part of business education and the government has found that ethics is essential (Garner, 1994) to a successful business environment and has legislated ethical behavior in businesses. In addition, we as stake holders, now more than ever, are demanding that the businesses we deal with act ethically. That being said, ethics is an obvious topic in a Business Law course, but often morality is comingled or, worse yet, confused for ethics. These two topics are quite different and have very different implications in the classroom. Educators must clearly understand the differences and determine how to address these topics appropriately in courses.As a professor, it is apparent that students are often confused between morality and ethics and while they usually have a strong sense of their morals, or at least those of their parents, they often don't understand ethics, how it is different from morality, and why it matters. It has also become clear that we as educators are often confused too. To teach ethics effectively we must understand both ethics and morality and how they are different. This paper will look at the difference between ethics and morality, how the two are addressed in business, how the two are addressed in law and how we should address the topics in courses.DEFINITIONSEven if separate ethics courses are available, ethics and morality inevitably work their way into business law courses simply by the nature of the topics addressed, particularly in a survey course. The Oxford English Dictionary identifies ethics as "the science of morals," and "the department of study concerned with principles of human duty," (Garner, 1994, p. 17). "Ethics" comes from the Greek ethos, meaning character (Thiroux, 1986, p. 2). Ethics is "a code of behavior in society or among a specific group in society" (The Difference between Ethics and Morality, 2013). Ethics is a broader concept than morality; it is a code, or a set of rules, that an entire group or society adheres to. The idea of ethics is much less personal and focuses more on the philosophies of a society's beliefs. When talki ng about ethics we are discussing the ideals of a society, group, or organization not those of an individual. Ethics should be used only in a context bounded by work and the term morality in the activity of living one's life (Jones, 1996, p. 9). Ethics demands that the principles that apply to conduct be identifiable, objective. Principles relate to action, to how we should behave, and to the basis on which we choose a course of action" (Machan, 1997, p. 12) Ethics is a defined code of behavior that a group of individuals is expected to comply with regardless of personal beliefs or morals (Machan, 1997, p. 31).Morality, on the other hand, is defined as "a doctrine or system of moral conduct" (Merriam-Webster Dictionar y) or a "conformity to ideals of right human conduct" (MerriamWebster Dictionary). "Morality" co mes fro m the Latin moralis, meani ng c us toms or ma nners (Thiroux, 1986, p. 2). Morality "refers to how you apply that philosophy in your own life" (The Difference Between Ethics and Morality, 2013). Morality is oriented to the individual; it is based on a set of values. One may learn morality from fa mily, friends, church or community, but morality focuses on how the individual applies those theories. However, morality is learned from a life time of experiences. "An individual's moral code is, thus, a set of moral principles that guides his or her actions; we all have such a code even though some of us might have difficulty articulating it." (Wines, 2008, p. 487) Morality focuses more on the ideas or beliefs of an individual. …

The Misuse of Student Evaluations of Teaching: Implications, Suggestions and Alternatives

Abstract: INTRODUCTION A 2005 essay by Fleet and Peterson highlighted an issue that has been troubling academics for the past 80 plus years. The premise of the essay was that while teaching is as important an element of academics' responsibilities as research, no universal platform for evaluating this activity exists. While Fleet and Peterson acknowledge that student evaluation of teaching (SETs) are currently the primary means of evaluating this performance, there is little consensus regarding the unquestioning acceptance as the most appropriate means to do so. In fact the consensus of many is that it is not (e.g., Galbraith et al. 2012). Some have even argued that the way in which universities are using SETs are changing the focusing of college teaching where the faculty member is seen more as a salesperson and the student as a customer. d'Apollonia and Abrami (1997) point out that the vast majority of post-secondary schools use student evaluations as one of, and often the most important measure of teaching effectiveness. The Carnegie Foundation conducted a study that determined that approximately 98 percent of universities administered some form of SETs (Magner, 1997). Business schools were reported by Comm and Mathaisel (1998) to exceed that level with over 99 percent using SETs. In fact, findings by Anderson and Shao (2002) found that business school administrators felt that SETs were the second most important component in evaluating teaching performance, eclipsed only by currency in field. This usage has been contributed to two major initiatives a significant increase in accountability of public institutions to state governments due to public pressure, and the increased emphasis of accrediting bodies such as The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (Simpson & Siguaw, 2001; Ballantyne, Borthwick & Packer, 2000). Historically when using the results of SETs, academic units have been treated as either a normal distribution or as a bimodal distribution. Performance was seen as existing on a continuum with individual performance either below or above a standard, typically the mean. Analysis of five years of SETs for a business school at a southwestern university revealed that a normal distribution did not exist. BACKGROUND There have been over 2,000 articles published relating to the use of SETs in assessing teaching effectiveness. Even today after this plethora of research, no consensus exists within the academic community regarding their use. Regardless of this ongoing debate regarding their usage, there is little likelihood of SETs being replaced by another assessment tool. In fact, over 18 percent (Comm M Overall & Marsh, 1980; Sixbury & Cashin, 1995). Ross (2005) disputes this claim and contends that there have been few if any statistical procedures used to verify reliability or validity of SETs. …