Showing papers in "The African Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics in 2013"

Current trends of Traditional Herbal Medicine Practice in Kenya: A review

Abstract: The use of herbal medicine is increasingly finding more relevance today, especially with the recognition that we are facing more challenges in the treatment of some medical conditions such as diabetes and cancer. To date, there are not many publications or records on the traditional herbal medicine use among the various Kenyan communities despite the widespread use. There is therefore an urgent need to document traditional medicines in Kenya for future reference and research. The main objective of this review is to examine the current state of traditional herbal medicine practise in Kenya, the challenges facing the sector and the possible solutions to streamline the practice and maximize on the benefits. The method adopted in this research involved the analysis of the available records on herbal medicine in Kenya from various sources including internet and the available books. This information was then compared with those in other countries with established systems in order to establish the existing inadequacies. The various efforts to document herbal medicine incorporate into mainstream healthcare and the legal framework was also reviewed. Key words: Herbal medicine, documentation, research

Antimicrobial properties and toxicity of Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel, Fuerstia africana T.C.E. Fries, Asparagus racemosus (Willd.) and Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.

Abstract: Background: The world health organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of population in Africa relies on traditional remedies for their healthcare. However, very few studies have been carried out to establish the therapeutic effects of these remedies. Objective: Four medicinal plants were investigated for antimicrobial activity and toxicity. Materials and Methods: Plants were collected from their natural habitat, dried, and extracted with organic and aqueous solvents. Antimicrobial activity was determined by the disc diffusion assay technique. In vitro cytotoxicity studies were carried out on extracts using MTT assay on Vero cell lines while acute toxicity in Swiss mice. Results: Extracts from H. abyssinica , F. africana and A. racemosus exhibited antibacterial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration of ≤ 6.25mg/ml against S . aureus , MRSA and P. aeruginosa . However, the plants studied had weak antifungal activity. H. abyssinica and F. africana extracts were found to be cytotoxic with CC 50 of ˂ 90 µg/ml. These extracts were tested for acute toxicity and found to be safe at 5000 mg/kg body weight per day. Conclusion: The results of the study support the medicinal use of these plants and indicate that useful compounds from Hagenia abyssinica and Fuerstia africana can be isolated for further exploitation. Keywords: Medicinal plants, Antimicrobial activity, Cytotoxicity, Acute toxicity

Choice and Sources of Antimalarial Drugs Used for Self-medication in Kisumu, Western Kenya

Abstract: Background : The choice and sources of antimalarial drugs used for self-medication has important implication to the current malaria treatment policies in Kenya. However, data on the choice of antimalarial drugs used for self-medication and their sources remains scanty. Objectives : The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of self-medication, the choice and sources of antimalarial drugs used for malaria self-medication in Kisumu city, Western Kenya. Methodology: This was a cross-sectional community based study, in which semi-structured questionnaires were randomly administered to 338 participants, in five administrative wards of Kisumu city. Results: Overall, 250 (74%) of the participants reported self-medication for perceived malaria illness. Of the 250 participants, 219 (87.6%) had used an antimalarial drug(s), while 31 (12.4%) took other drugs (antipyretics and herbs), which they perceived to have antimalarial effect. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT), was the drug of choice for majority 154 (70.3%) of those who had self-medicated. The other antimalarials used were sulphadoxine/sulphalene-pyrimethamine 25 (11.4%), amodiaquine 11 (5%), chloroquine 5 (2.3%), quinine 2 (0.9%), dihydroartemisinin 1 (0.5%), halofantrene 1 (0.5%) and 20 (9%) of participants had used two different antimalarials. The antimalarial drugs were sourced from private pharmacies/chemists (78.4%), general retail shops (29.2%), left over drugs at home (1.6%), or friends, relatives and neighbors (2.8%). Conclusion: Self-medication for perceived malaria is prevalent in Kisumu city. ACT is the drug of choice for self-medication. However, a substantial proportion of individuals use currently ineffective antimalarials or other drugs, for example antipyretics, with no known antimalarial efficacy. Pharmacies/chemists and general retail shops are the major sources for self-prescribed drugs. Key words: Self-medication, antimalarial drugs, choices, sources

Microbial Quality of Unregulated Herbal Medicinal Products in Kenya

Abstract: Background: The use of herbal medicines is global, with the majority of the world’s population depending on traditional medicines, particularly herbal remedies for their primary healthcare needs. In Kenya, it is estimated that conventional healthcare system provides for approximately 30 % of the population, while nearly 70 % rely on herbal remedies. Herbal medicines, however, present safety concerns as they carry a relatively high risk of contamination by pathogenic microbes, organic and inorganic pollutants including toxic metals and non-metals, organic, mycotoxins, endotoxins, and agrochemical residues. Objective: This study was designed to assess the microbial quality of regulated and unregulated herbal medicinal products in diverse Kenyan markets, such as the supermarkets, roadside vendors, retail pharmacies and herbal clinics, for levels of microbial contaminants. Materials and Methods: Thirty samples of registered and unregistered herbal medicinal products were collected by purposive sampling from five Kenyan provinces. Microbial load analysis was performed in accordance to pharmacopoeial methods (BP and USP). Microorganisms were further isolated and characterized using differential and selective media and by biochemical analyses. Results: All registered products had microbial load below 100 cfu/ml, and complied with BP and USP requirements. However, none of the unregistered samples complied with pharmacopoeial limits for either or both bacterial and fungal load limits. Most of the unregistered samples had microbial loads ranging from 3.00×10 6 to 1.56 × 10 10 cfu/ml, thus exceeding by far BP or USP standards. The microbial isolates belonged to fifteen (15) different bacterial genera and seven (7) fungal genera. Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated bacteria from 75 % of the unregistered product samples while Klebsiella pneumoniae , Enterobacter aerogenes , and Staphylococcus aureus followed in 70 %, 60 % and 45 % of the samples, respectively. Salmonella spp was isolated in 40 % of the samples while Shigella spp was found in 20 % of the samples. Conclusion: Unregulated herbal medicinal products that are available in diverse Kenyan markets show poor microbial quality and exhibit contamination by pathogenic microorganisms. There is need to extend regulatory control by the drug authorities to herbal medicinal products to enhance microbial quality and safety. Keywords: Microbial contaminants, herbal medicines, microbial load

Effect of Methanol Leaf Extract of Nauclea latifolia on Albino Mice Infected with Plasmodium berghei berghei

Abstract: Background: In Nigeria the leaf decoction of Nauclea latifolia is taken to treat malaria and sexually transmitted diseases. This study intends to generate a scientific data in support of the traditional use of the leaves in malaria treatment. Objective: To investigate the antiplasmodial effect of the methanol extract of the leaves of Nauclea latifolia on chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium berghei berghei in experimentally infected albino mice. Materials and Methods: The fresh leaves of Nauclea latifolia were collected, dried under shade, ground into powder and macerated in methanol for 72 hrs. The dried extract was stored at -4 °C for use. Thirty (30) mice were divided into five groups (A,B,C,D,E). Group A received 10 ml/kg/day of distilled water (negative control). Groups B, C and D received 370, 740 and 1110 mg/kg/day of the extract respectively. Group E received 1.2 mg/kg/day of artesunate (positive control). This experiment was repeated for suppressive, prophylactic and curative tests. Results: The extract produced considerable antiplasmodial activity in all the three tests evaluated compared to the standard drug (artesunate). The extract reduced parasitaemia significantly (p<0.05) in a dose dependent manner. Bioactive constituents of the plant could be responsible for the antiplasmodial activity Conclusion: The result of the study supports the need for continued search for components of traditional medicine as potential antimalarial agents. Keywords: Malaria, Nauclea latifolia , mice , Plasmodium berghei berghei

In vitro Antitubercular and Antibacterial activities of isolated constituents and column fractions from leaves of Cassia occidentalis, Camellia sinensis and Ananas comosus

Abstract: Background: Tuberculosis still remains a leading cause of death in the world. There is currently considerable interest in natural products and their derivatives in the area of drug research for multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). The present investigation focused on search for potent antitubercular and antibacterial natural leads from plants. Objective : To evaluate isolated fractions and chemical constituents from leaves of Cassia occidentalis, Camellia sinensis and Ananas comosus for antibacterial and antitubercular activities. Materials and Methods : Leaves were sequentially extracted with petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, methanol and water. The obtained extracts were examined for the presence of various phytochemicals by thin layer chromatography, and then selected extracts were fractionated by column chromatography. A total of 15 column fractions were collected, and screened for antibacterial and anti-tubercular activities. The antibacterial activity was evaluated on American type cultures of Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus subtilis , Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by broth microdilution method, whilst anti-tubercular screening was carried out against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H 37 R V by microplate alamar blue assay (MABA) method. Results : Several fractions (3, 6, 9) belong to C. occidentalis, C. sinensis showed good antibacterial activity (MIC: 2 – 8 μg/ml) and moderate antitubercular activity (MIC 25 - 50 μg/ml). Chemical constituents present in fractions 3, 6 and 9 were isolated and identified as cassiaoccidentalins, glucoronide soponin and catechin, respectively. Fractions of A. comosus showed MIC between 16 to 32 μg/ml for antibacterial activity and > 100 μg/ml for antitubercular activity. Discussion : Among these plants, C. occidentalis, was found to more potential against antitubercular and antibacterial activity. A. comosus was relatively less potent against antibacterial and in effective against mycobacteria. Cassiaoccidentalin exhibited potent antibacterial activity and moderate antitubercular activity. Key words: Cassia occidentalis, Camellia sinensis , Ananas comosus, anti-tubercular activity, antibacterial activity.

Predictors of Breast Cancer Treatment Outcomes in Kenyan Women

Abstract: Background: Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among Kenyan women. Worldwide data show that diverse factors including socio-economic status, co-morbidities, and expression of hormonal receptors, have effect on disease recurrence or metastasis following treatment. Most studies on breast cancer treatment outcomes have been undertaken in developed countries, and there is scarcity of data on predictive indicators of breast cancer treatment outcomes in Africa. Objective : This study was designed to determine the factors that predict the treatment outcomes in breast cancer patients in a Kenyan teaching and referral hospital. Methods: This hospital based retrospective descriptive study was designed to evaluate the effect of the occurrence of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, human epidermal growth factor and cancer stage among other factors on the outcome of breast cancer treatment. Patients diagnosed with breast cancer and who had their first visit at the KNH in the period 2007-2008 were identified. Quantitative variables were described with medians or means. Association effects were determined by use of Chi-square test. Categorical variables were summarized using proportions. The time to event analysis was estimated using the Kaplan–Meier product limit method. Results: The mean age of the 219 participants was 46.5 years (range 23 to 92 years), majority (36.1%) of whom were aged between 41 to 50 years. Most study participants had stage 2B (21.9%) cancer type, and the histological grade 3 breast cancer was predominant type (50.2%). Nearly half of the patients (46.1%) developed metastases. In bivariate analyses, cancer stage 2A (OR 0.29, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.77) and stage 2B (OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.21- 0.77), presence of estrogen receptors (OR 0.24, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.77), presence of progesterone receptor (OR 0.26, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.72), human epidermal growth factors (OR 0.05, 95% CI 0.003 to 0.84), and those on hormonal treatment (OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.62) were factors less likely to be associated with development of metastasis after treatment. In multivariate analysis, HIV positive status (OR 0.004, 95% CI 0.002 to 0.75), presence of estrogen (OR 0.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.64) and human epidermal growth factors (OR 2.53, 95% CI 1.64 to 3.91) receptors and obesity (OR 2.53, 95% CI 1.64 to 3.91) were independent factors influencing development of metastasis after treatment. Conclusion : This study showed that development of metastasis after breast cancer therapy has associations with the expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor -2 (HER-2) as well as the stage of diagnosis. This study demonstrates the need for enhanced screening for breast cancer to improve early diagnosis and the testing of ER, PR and HER-2 are crucial as they predict outcomes of therapy.

Investigation of the antimicrobial potentials of some phytochemical extracts of leaf and stem bark of Berlinia grandiflora (Leguminoceae) Caesalpinioidae against pathogenic bacteria

Abstract: Introduction Berlinia comprises about 20 species which are confined to tropical Africa with almost all the species found in West and Central Africa (Hutchison and Dalziel, 1963). Berlinia grandiflora is widespread in Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Central Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo (Hutchison and Dalziel, 1963). It is a forest tree that is sometimes planted as ornamental tree and shade tree in villages and coffee plantations. It is occasionally browsed by livestock especially sheep and goats. The Igbos of South Eastern Nigeria refers to it in their local languages as abaa, dokar, rafi, and ububa while the Yorubas of the South West Nigeria refer to it as apado. Its bark sap is applied to sores and wounds, and bark decoctions are administered to treat haemorrhoids and liver complaints (Gill, 1992). The bark is used to ease labour during child birth and gastrointestinal disorders. A decoction of the leafy twigs is used as febrifuge and antiemetic while leafy decoctions are taken as tonic (Gill, 1992). Reports of its biological activities are scanty and include analgesic activity of stem bark extract (Asuzu et al, 1993), antihelminthic activity of stem bark (Enwerem et al, 2001), antihelminthic activity of stem bark and its active principle, betulinic acid (Enwerem et al, 2001). In South Eastern Nigeria, the leaf and the stem bark extracts of the plant are used by traditional herbalists to treat microbial infections. However, this ethnomedicinal use of the plant parts has not been validated scientifically. This study investigated the antimicrobial potential of the aqueous, methanol and butanol extracts of the leaves and stem bark against pathogenic bacteria as part of our evaluation of its antimicrobial activity.

Validation of Safety and Efficacy of Antitussive Herbal Formulations

Abstract: Background: Cough is an important defensive pulmonary reflex that removes irritants, fluids or foreign materials from the airways. Frequently, cough is non-productive and requires suppression and opioid receptor agonists such as codeine are commonly used as antitussive agents. However, opioids produce side effects that include sedation, addiction potential and constipation. Novel cough suppressant therapies should maintain or improve upon the antitussive efficacy profile of opioids but with minimum or no side effects. Objective: To evaluate antitussive activity of combination of herbal medicines as formulations in sulphur dioxide - induced cough model in rats. Methodology: Wister rats of either sex, weighing 150 - 200 g, were divided into 7 groups (n = 6). Group 1 served as a control and received normal saline, groups 2 received codeine phosphate, group 3 and 4 received the coded market samples and groups 5, 6 and 7 received the test samples, respectively. Thirty or sixty minutes following administration, the rats were exposed to sulphur dioxide gas for 1 minute and then placed in an open chamber for counting of cough bouts. Results: The formulations exhibited cough inhibitions of between 15 and 27%, and 14 and 38%, with respect to the control group, 30 and 60 minutes after sample administration respectively. Conclusion: The herbal formulations demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) antitussive activity in sulphur dioxide induced cough model. Key words: Antitussive activity; herbal formulations; sulphur dioxide; cough

Effect of some Artemisinin and Combination Therapy Regimens with and without Concomitant Administration of Phospholipids on the Levels of Plasma Aminotransferases and Bilirubin in Nigerian Male Subjects

Abstract: Results: Co-administration of ART with amodiaquine (AMQ), mefloquine (MFQ) and sulphadoxine/pyremethamine (SP) respectively, on the 4th day of the studies increased the mean plasma concentration of AST to 8070%, 1080% and 750% against 59% for ART alone; ALT increased to 104%, 330% and 4330% against 2505% for ART alone; total bilirubin (TBIL) increased to 800%, 7888% and 9891% against 176% for ART alone The co-administration and post-administration of ART and the ACTs with 900mg and 1800mg daily dose of PL respectively reduced the levels of the AST, ALT and BIL by 650% and 970% of the increased values respectively on 4th day Discussion: The results suggest that ART as a monotherapeutic agent has injurious effect on the liver, and this effect is aggravated when ART is used in ACTs, however, the co-administration with phospholipids cushions the adverse effects

Investigation of In-Patient Prescribing Patterns of Oral Antidiabetic Drugs in a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital

Abstract: Background: Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition associated with abnormally high levels of glucose in the blood. Absence or insufficient production of insulin and/or defective actions of insulin causes diabetes. Diabetics are at a higher risk of polypharmacy and more vulnerable to irrational prescribing. Methods: A non-interventional, prospective cross sectional study conducted at inpatient medicine department of K.S Hegde Charitable Hospital, Mangalore, India, with the objectives of collecting demographtc and disease details of diabetes patients, studying the pattern of oral hypoglycemic agents prescribed in type 2 diabetic patients and to assess the awarness of patients about diabetes , its medication and lifestyle modifications. A prospective study was carried out over a period of five months in medicine in-patient department. Results: A suitable data collection form was prepared and used to collect the required data. The knowledge of the patients was assessed by using a questionnaire. About 120 patients were recruited for the study. Among the study population 57.5% (69) were males. The majority of patients (48%) were in the age group of 41-60 years. About 49.2% of the patients have a history of diabetes less than 5 years. Conclusion: Metformin and glimepride was the most common drug used among the various oral antidiabetics prescribed. The present study found that majority of patients had knowledge about diabetes.

Renal impact of sub acute lamivudine-artesunate treatment in wistar rats

Abstract: Lamivudine and artesunate are life saving drugs in the treatment of HIV/HBV and malaria respectively, and available data shows artesunate having anti-tumour properties. The concurrent administration of both drugs presents important safety concerns. This study investigated possible effects of lamivudine-artesunate co-administration on renal function and histology in wistar rats.

Is it Time to Abandon Stavudine? The Safety and Tolerability of Low Dose Stavudine versus Zidovudine in Urban Kenya

Abstract: Background: Stavudine (d4T) and zidovudine (AZT) form the backbone of the most commonly used first-line highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens in Kenya. In 2012, more than 60 % of patients undergoing combination antiretroviral therapy were either on AZT or d4T based regimens, mainly due to their affordability and availability in fixed dose combinations. Following, the World health Organization’s recommendation in 2010 that d4T should be phased out due to safety concerns, Kenya has been steadily withdrawing d4T from HIV/AIDS treatment programmes. Despite these decisions, questions as to whether stavudine ought to be altogether abandoned in resource constrained settings continue to elicit debate among clinicians, researchers and patient groups. Objective: This study was consequently designed to compare the tolerability and efficacy of AZT with low dose d4T in treatment of HIV infected adults in urban Kenya, and to generate data on the safety of low dose stavudine. Method: The design was an analytic retrospective hospital- based cohort study that involved examination of records of patients on antiretroviral therapy. The study had two comparator arms: (i) ART-naive adult patients initiated on stavudine 30 mg based HAART, and (ii) ART-naive adult patients initiated on zidovudine based HAART. Quantitative variables were described with medians or means, and compared between groups using Wilcoxon rank sum test. Association effects were determined by use of Chi-square test. Categorical variables were summarized using proportions. The time to event analysis was estimated using the Kaplan–Meier product limit method. Cox Proportional Hazards regression was used to model the hazard rates of regimen switching. Results: The incidence rate (IR) of switching regimen was higher in patients initiated on zidovudine than in patients initiated on low dose stavudine (11.3 % and 7.0 % respectively). The most common reason for regimen switch was toxicity (79.2 %). In patients initiated on stavudine, lipodystrophy was the main reason for treatment change (53.2 %) followed by peripheral neuropathy (23.4 %). Amongst patients initiated on zidovudine, anaemia was the main reason for treatment change (33.3 %). There was no significant difference in median change in CD4 cell counts between the two treatment groups. Conclusion: The study has showed that patients initiated on a zidovudine based regimen were more likely to change their treatment compared to those on a low dose stavudine. Stavudine therefore still has its benefits, and public health programmes should not altogether abandon it. Keywords: Stavudine phase out, low dose stavudine, zidovudine

The antinociceptive effects of hydrazinocurcumin

Abstract: The term “analgesics” refers to drugs that are used to abolish the pain sensation. The two major classes of analgesics in clinical use are narcotic or opioid analgesics and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs act by inhibiting the enzyme cycloxygenase and are further sub-classified on the basis of their selectivity for the target enzyme. Analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents in current use have many toxic effects that limit their therapeutic usefulness (Krenzischek et al, 2003). NSAIDs are notorious for causing gastric ulceration and renal failure (Rodrigiez et al., 2007). Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) inhibitory agents have, unfortunately, been recently shown to have serious cardiovascular toxicity (Stacy et al, 2012). The acute adverse effects caused by opiod analgesics include constipation, drowsiness, confusion, nausea and itching. Tolerance and dependence occur after chronic use (Zollner and Stein, 2007). Forty percent of the patients suffering from chronic pain are dissatisfied with the drugs used to manage their pain (Eriksen et al, 2003). Consequently, there is a continuous search for safer agents that have a low addictive potential.

An investigation of the antimicrobial activity of acmella caulirhiza

Abstract: Background: Acmella caulirhiza is a plant that is used traditionally to treat several disorders such as mouth ulcers, sore throat, toothache and earache, among others. It is a small annual or perennial herb whose location is widespread worldwide. Objectives: The objective of the study was to determine whether the leaves, stem and the flowers extract of the plant possess antibacterial and antifungal activity and to find out which part of the plant is the most active, if any . Methodology: Acmella caulirhiza was collected from the wild in Kericho County. The flower heads, the leaves and the stems were dried separately, ground into a powder and extracted with chloroform. The plant extracts were tested for activity against Escherichia Coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Bacillus pumilus. Results and Discussion: The plant extracts inhibited the growth of Escherichia Coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus pumilus. The activity was highest in the stems extracts. The extracts, however, did not have any anti-fungal activity when tested against Candida albicans . It was concluded from these results that the anti-bacterial activity may aid in the efficacy when the plant is used to treat mouth ulcers or sore throat. Key words: Acmella caulirhiza , anti-fungal activity, anti-bacterial activity, traditional medicine

Contraceptive and sexual behavioural effects of methanol extract of Smilax kraussiana root in rodents

Abstract: Background: Smilax kraussiana root has an age-long historical use for family planning among the Uruan Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Traditionally, a decoction of the root is made either with boiling water or local gin and administered. Objective: To investigate its contraceptive potential with a view of ascertaining the scientific basis for its use in family planning, and establish if any, its mechanism for action. Method : The pulverized root was macerated in methanol for 72h and filtered with Whatman filter paper No.4. It was stored – 4 0 C until when required. Randomized female rats having regular estrus cycle were divided into groups and were administered with various doses of extract. They were observed for estrus, ovulation and contraception as well as progestational and sexual behaviour. Result : The result showed that it has anticonceptive effect, altered estrus, and ovulation cycle and possessed estrogenic effect which resulted in contraception. It also increases lordosis frequency, lordosis quotient as well as intromission frequency. Conclusion: The anticonceptive, estrogenic and progestational properties as well as its copulatory behaviours are predicated on the properties of its phytochemical constituents which includes alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids. This therefore, justifies its folkloric use in family planning. Keywords: Smilax kraussiana , contraceptive extract, rodents, sexual behaviour.

The effect of Lisinopril on blood glucose level given alone and in combination with oral anti-diabetic drugs in alloxan-induced diabetic rats

Abstract: Background: In diabetic patients, ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors prevent the development and progression of incipient or established nephropathy and delay the progression of diabetic retinopathy hence these drugs are routinely prescribed with oral anti-diabetic drugs in these conditions. The picture of actual impact of ACE inhibitors on blood glucose is controversial and still not clear. This study therefore aimed to evaluate the effect of Lisinopril on blood glucose level and the interaction with the oral anti-diabetic drugs metformin, gliclazide and pioglitazone in alloxan induced diabetic rats.

Development of a nutraceutical from natural products: A case study of a herbal-based low sodium table salt

Abstract: Background: Cyperus papyrus reed ash has been used traditionally as a salt substitute in Western Kenya. Previous work carried out at Kenya Medical Research Institute indicated that potassium salt substitution derived from local papyrus reed has a favourable potassium/sodium ratio that is suitable for use to regulate high blood pressure. Objective: To develop and design a process flow for pilot scale production and to develop suitable analytical methods for quality assurance for a herbal based low sodium table salt. Methodology: The plant material was collected from two study sites in Rift Valley then cleaned, chopped, dried, ashed and extracted at laboratory and optimized industrial scale to yield laboratory and pilot scale samples. Elemental analysis was determined using Atomic Absorption and Flame emission spectroscopy. Results: The herbal salt yield for the laboratory scale processing was about 10% for both samples but 13% and 22%, respectively, using the optimized industrial procedure. Elemental analysis results indicate the presence of both essential and non-essential elements and heavy metal was within the World Health Organization acceptable limits. The potassium/sodium ratios obtained were between 3 and 11. Discussion: The herbal salt has the capacity to preserve meat and is a source of other essential trace elements such as chromium, Zinc and manganese. Key words: Nutraceuticals; process optimization; low sodium; herbal salt; elemental composition

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of Lonchocarpus cyanescens root in mice

Abstract: Background: The root of Lonchocarpus cyanescens is one common remedy of the Ibibios of Akwa Ibom State , Nigeria for the treatment of pain and inflammatory disorders. Objective: To study and validate the anti-inflammatory and analgesic potentials of the ethanol extract and fractions of L. cyanescens root in mice. Methodology: The ethanol extract and the partitioned fractions were tested using carrageenan-induced inflammation, xylene–induced ear oedema models as well as on pains induced chemically and thermally in mice. Results: L. cyanescens root extract and fractions demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in all the models, suppressed acute oedema as well as exhibited dose and time dependent analgesic properties with butanol fraction showing the highest effects. Discussion: Since the extract and its fractions significantly affected oedema and pain in the various models of this study, it therefore justify the use of the root traditionally in the treatment of pain and inflammatory diseases. Keywords: Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, pain, Lonchocarpus cyanescens

Transcriptional regulation of Rat Endothelial Nitric Oxide Promoter in Pulmonary Myofibroblasts cells and its implications in Pulmonary Fibrosis

Abstract: Background : Nitric oxide (NO) levels may exert control on the persistence of pulmonary myofibroblast cells in pulmonary fibrosis. Objective : This study set out to examine the regulation of NO levels by transcription factors that influence the expression of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS3) gene. Methods : Using a pGL3-Basic vector plasmid DNA, rat and human eNOS3 gene promoters were inserted upstream of a luciferase reporter gene and cloned in competent E. coli cells (DH5α). Transfection assays were performed and the cells treated with potential regulators of eNOS3 gene. Promoter activity of eNOS3 gene was assayed using the Dual Luciferase reporter gene assay. Results : The results indicated that the rat NOS3 promoter was active in the cells, with the human NOS3 promoter showing little or no activity. The results demonstrated that transforming growth factor-β, EGTA and lipopolysaccharide up-regulated transcriptional activity while Phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate, 23187 and S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, suppressed eNOS3 transcriptional activity. Treatment with Nw-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester had no effect on the gene expression. Discussion : The results of this study demonstrates that high concentrations of NO inhibit NOS3 gene activity, hence an enhanced expression of eNOS in response to pharmacological interventions using some transcriptional factors from these study could provide protection against interstitial pulmonary. Key words : Nitric oxide, transcription, NOS3 gene promoter, pulmonary fibrosis

Clinical Efficacy of Selected Antimalarials with and Without Concomitant Administration of Antibacterials

Abstract: Background: There is a high rate of malaria treatment failure even with the use of the artemisinin combination therapy (ACT). Studies have revealed that some bacteria infections present the same symptoms as uncomplicated and severe malaria. In most outpatient clinics, prescriptions are based only on the symptoms presented by the patients. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of concomitant bacterial infection in malaria parasitaemia, evaluate the type of bacteria and assess the effect of the concomitant administration of five classes of antibacterial and antimalarials on the symptoms presented by the patients. Methodology: Malaria parasitaemia was determined by thick and thin blood smears stained with Giemsa . Blood samples were cultured in MacConkey, chocolate and blood agar respectively using oxoid signal system after the manufacturers’ instructions and microbial load was determined by pour plate method. Results: Out of the 210 symptomatic cases 170 (80.95%) were found infected with malaria out of which 96 (56.47%) had bacterial co-infection and 74(45.53%) had malaria mono-infection. Of the 50 non-symptomatic cases 6 (12.00%) were found infected with malaria parasite among whom 2(33.33%) had bacterial co-infection. 64% of the symptomatic patients with malaria mono-infection who took dihydroartemisinin (DHA) as monotherapeutic or combination therapy (ACT) respectively improved clinically within 24 hours after initiation of treatment. 88% of the patients with concomitant infection who took either, DHA or ACT in combination with various antibacterial improved clinically within 24 hours. After 72 hours (three day), 75% of patients with concomitant infection who used only antimalarial DHA or ACT still had mild to severe headache and fever while 91% of those in this group who used antimalarials concurrently with various antibacterials were free of all the clinical symptoms presented pre-treatment. On the 7 th day post treatment, 95% of patients with concomitant infection who used anti-malarial for three days and then antibacterial from the 4 th day and 94% of those in this group who used antimalarial concurrently with antibacterial from the commencement of treatment had all their clinical symptoms resolved Discussion: From the results of this study, we conclude that some bacterial infection present the same clinical symptoms as malaria, as such proper laboratory check should be conducted before administration of antimalarials and that concomitant use of antimalarials with broad spectrum antibacterials is more effective in malaria chemotherapy. Key words: Clinical efficacy; Antimalarials; Antibacterials; Concomitant Administration