Showing papers in "The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods in 2008"

Structural Equation Modelling: Guidelines for Determining Model Fit

Abstract: The following paper presents current thinking and research on fit indices for structural equation modelling. The paper presents a selection of fit indices that are widely regarded as the most informative indices available to researchers. As well as outlining each of these indices, guidelines are presented on their use. The paper also provides reporting strategies of these indices and concludes with a discussion on the future of fit indices.

Issues and challenges in the use of template analysis: twocomparative case studies from the field

Abstract: One of the most problematic issues for researchers who conduct qualitative research using semi-structured, unstructured interviews or story telling data collection methods is the analysis of large quantities of rich data. In the past this has often led to fairly unmethodical approaches to analysis which in turn has led to qualitative business and management research being seen as insubstantial and unworthy of consideration. A relatively recent development in organisational research has been the application of Template Analysis to rich unstructured qualitative data following the primary data collection phase. Template Analysis appears to have emerged from the USA during the 1990s and academics familiar with the Grounded Theory approach to data analysis may see similarities in the techniques used. Nevertheless, it has gained credibility in the UK through the work of Nigel King and other colleagues researching in health and sociology related fields. This paper provides an overview of the origins of Template Analysis and discusses how it has been used to structure qualitative data. It then goes on to examine through two case studies how Template Analysis has been extended and used by the authors in two different research projects. Both case studies involved the study of Information and Communication Technology. In the first case study the research team worked within a Primary Care Trust in the North East of England and the second project focused on the NHS Secondary Care sector. This paper critically examines these two case studies in terms of their particular research philosophy, epistemological approach and the lessons learnt from the techniques employed. The paper then provides a discussion of the principles and practicalities of template analysis and explores the benefits to the business and management research community at large.

Grounded Suggestions for Doing a Grounded Theory Business Research

Abstract: This paper provides suggestions of doing a grounded theory business research. The main intention is to provide guidelines and suggestions for novice researchers, students and their supervisors in conducting a grounded theory business research. The main discussion of this paper will focus on the principles driving a grounded theory research, the choice between the two versions of grounded theory, the research problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, and the place of literature review in a grounded theory study. In addition, an example of how a grounded theory was induced from data is illustrated. Its purpose is to illustrate how the procedures of data analysis, theoretical memoing and theoretical sampling were used to progressively to generate a grounded theory. In conclusion, the specific skills required by the researchers attempting a grounded theory study are suggested.

Undertaking a structured literature review or structuring a literature review: tales from the field

Abstract: The diversity of sources of literature within the management disciplines has resulted in a growing need for a systematic methodology to map the territory of its associated theories and models. As such, when scoping out a doctoral or policy based study the Structured Literature Review (SLR) can be considered as a means by which critical literature central to and underpinning the research can be rigorously and systematically mapped out. However, there is little guidance, or evidence, of this being the case when undertaking small scale projects for example undergraduate or masters degree dissertations. This paper reports four case studies using semi-structured interviews of masters degree students following management programmes who undertook a Structured Literature Review based dissertation and the issues and problems they had to encounter during their journey. The findings from the case studies suggest that the approach to SLRs, whilst suited to doctoral level and policy based research is not appropriate when dealing with undergraduate and masters dissertations and projects. The case study findings identified that these students conducting a SLR had to deal with a new set of conceptual, methodological and data collection problems relating to this ‘unorthodox’ approach to conducting a postgraduate research dissertation. The findings show that students had to confront new paradigms of enquiry that are not normally taught or found in ‘traditional’ research texts and research methods courses that are taught on degree programmes. However, the findings do reveal that students gained a greater depth and insight into the subject they were researching through a more rigorous and structured approach. The paper then presents alternative remedies by way of the Rapid Structured Literature Review (RSLR) research strategy which is argued as an appropriate approach in conducting small scale literature based research projects when used with undergraduate and masters degree students rather than the SLR, which is better suited for other types of research such as doctoral and policy based activities.

Best Practices in Project Management Through a Grounded Theory Lens

Abstract: Grounded Theory is still regarded with skepticism as a research methodology by many academics so this paper has been specifically constructed using recent research to illustrate the rigour of the Grounded Theory Methodology. An investigation into 'best practice amongst European Project Managers used the Grounded Theory Methodology to analyse interview data. This paper reports on that practical application of the Grounded Theory Methodology and contributes to the growing literature on the use of Grounded Theory as a research methodology. The three individual data analysis methods of Open‑Coding, Constant Comparison, and Memorising are shown in operation and can be seen producing the findings. These findings are then operated on with the Grounded Theory method of Theoretical Coding and some deeply influential conclusions come out of this data analysis. The whole Grounded Theory methodology can be seen in operation and the concepts and categories can be seen emerging from the data. The contribution to the discipline of computing will be published elsewhere in technical journals but the research method is the main aim of this paper in this conference.

Millennial Students and Technology Choices for Information Searching

Abstract: This paper draws together ideas about different generations of students, notably the 'millennial generation' (born from around 1982 to 2000) which encompasses a high proportion of current students in higher education, and ideas about the different types of technology available when searching for information. In the context of higher education, this is particularly relevant when students are encouraged to find out information for themselves, typically to relate this to taught material. This is connected with information literacy, as it reflects students' abilities to carry out simple or complex research. This paper focuses on why students choose particular technologies to support their research and the effect of these choices on their learning and on their written work. A particular current issue is the emergence of the generation of Internet resources collectively known as 'web 2.0' notably Blogs and Wikis — and the relationship of these to the way that students presently in universities favour structuring their work. These resources also introduce issues of authoritativeness. It is tempting to dismiss wikipedia as the work of amateurs, but where a blog has been created by a notable expert, author, or journalist, questions arise as to whether the blog should be regarded as of different value from the same person's written work. Therefore some consideration will be given to how students can be encouraged to recognise and draw on intelligent exploitation of these new resources. Underlying data for the paper is drawn from discussions with current students, both individually and in groups.

Individualised rating-scale procedure: a means of reducing response style contamination in survey data?

Abstract: Response style bias has been shown to seriously contaminate the substantive results drawn from survey data; particularly those conducted using cross-cultural samples. As a consequence, identification of response formats that suffer least from response style bias has been called for. Previous studies show that respondents’ personal characteristics, such as age, education level and culture, are connected with response style manifestation. Differences in the way respondents interpret and utilise researcher-defined fixed rating-scales (e.g. Likert formats), poses a problem for survey researchers. Techniques that are currently used to remove response bias from survey data are inadequate as they cannot accurately determine the level of contamination present and frequently blur true score variance. Inappropriate rating-scales can impact on the level of response style bias manifested, insofar as they may not represent respondents’ cognitions. Rating-scale lengths that are too long present respondents with some response categories that are not ‘meaningful’, whereas rating-scales that are too short force respondents into compressing their cognitive rating-scales into the number of response categories provided (this can cause ERS contamination – extreme responding). We are therefore not able to guard against two respondents, who share the same cognitive position on a continuum, reporting their stance using different numbers on the rating-scale provided. This is especially problematic where a standard fixed rating-scale is used in cross-cultural surveys. This paper details the development of the Individualised Rating-Scale Procedure (IRSP), a means of extracting a respondent’s ‘ideal’ rating-scale length, and as such ‘designing out’ response bias, for use as the measurement instrument in a survey. Whilst the fundamental ideas for self-anchoring rating-scales have been posited in the literature, the IRSP was developed using a series of qualitative interviews with participants. Finally, we discuss how the IRSP’s reliability and validity can be quantitatively assessed and compared to typical fixed researcher-defined rating-scales, such as the Likert format.

Using plenary focus groups in information systems research: More than a collection of interviews

Abstract: Standard data collection techniques in qualitative research have included surveys, interviews and observations. The Focus group technique is a more recent addition to the empirical researcher's repertoire and is highly appropriate to Information Systems research in particular circumstances. This paper introduces a focus group approach to the study of information systems using a case study scenario and employing a structuring technique borrowed from Soft Systems Methodology designed to shape the discussion and organize group attention on specific aspects of the descriptive process. The paper describes the conduct of focus groups with respect to individual incidents and defines a particular type of Focus Group which involves all persons attendant at an event, thereby removing problems of sampling and representativeness. The unique properties and advantages of this type of focus group in respect to IS research emerged from the case study and an example of the use of story elicitation technique is described. The case study scenario is a regional fire service and any fire or rescue related incident is unique, dynamic, live and real-time, in addition it requires the combined skills and actions of a group of individuals, none of whom may have a full overview of the situation until after the event. These factors are present in other events such as any emergency procedure, artistic or sporting performance, construction and demolition events. Recording of such events presents genuine problems for information systems and the elicitation technique helped the group members to think in different ways about the impact of their incident recording systems. As the technique has broader use across research disciplines, an attempt is made to identify the attributes and properties of these 'Plenary Focus Groups' in information systems research scenario that might lend themselves to focus group research as a useful and successful technique.

Systematic Literature Searching and the Bibliographic Database Haystack

Abstract: Researchers performing literature searches are increasingly using bibliographic databases as their initial and dominant resource. While the increasing number, volume and ease of access to academic and other databases potentially speeds searching, researchers require a rapidly evolving set of skills to do this efficiently. Current literature on this topic and research organisations developing techniques in this area are discussed. Aspects to be considered when designing search filters to extract relevant literature are also detailed. Further method development by the author performed during a systematic literature search on the topic of Barriers and constraints for women leaders is additionally examined.

Psychological contracts in Australia: a mixed method research approach

Abstract: It has been argued that in a workplace environment that is characterised by significant change and uncertainty, the formation and content of the psychological contracts are of increasing importance regarding levels of employee trust, satisfaction, commitment and motivation, and teaching and research outcomes. While research has clearly demonstrated that psychological contracts can have considerable impact upon workplace relations and employee performance, research into the formation, content and effects of psychological contracts between academics and the University has been very limited.The paper used a sequential multi methods research design to explore the formation and content of psychological contracts established by the academics within an Australian University. The empirical research began with exploratory focus group discussions which were followed by a mail survey. The focus groups were carried first to identify the issues and themes that can subsequently be drawn upon to assist with development of relevant survey questions. Focus groups sought to elicit insights and subjective interpretations of the psychological contracts and the consequences of perceived fulfilment or breach. This, first qualitative phase of research has identified four key foci of academic responsibility that greatly influenced the formation and effects of the psychological contracts that have been formed, and these are: the University, the discipline, society, and students. These four categories were used later on to further develop the questionnaire and carry out exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a larger survey of the academics. Using exploratory factor analysis of the survey data, eight factors were discovered relating to the University’s obligations to its employees and three underlying factors were found in relation to individual academic’s obligations to the University. In terms of the University’s obligation to the academics, the EFA reinforces the importance of leadership and management, fairness and equity (notably in relation to promotion and provision of opportunities for career development). In terms of the academics’ perceived obligations to the university, the EFA points to the importance of role expectations and commitment to the job and student learning.

White Researcher‑Black Subjects: Exploring the Challenges of Researching the Marginalised and 'Invisible'

Abstract: How to access the life world of the Other without mis‑representing it, has long been a concern in a number of research traditions, including disability, feminist and black research traditions. Feminist debates have addressed issues such as whether researchers can only speak on behalf of their own social groups or whether there is legitimacy in speaking on behalf of the Other. Justification for this often arises from the fact that dis‑empowered groups may not have access to a public forum where they can be heard, so that social researchers see their role as 'giving a voice' to those who would otherwise not be heard. By contrast, other researchers see commonalities with their respondents as a particular strength. The paper focuses on theoretical perspectives which provided the framework in a study of the lived experiences and expressed views of second‑generation female young people of African and Caribbean heritage in predominantly white community and school settings. It examines some of the theoretical as well as personal considerations of a white female researcher and educational practitioner whose personal position and interests had to be negotiated within the research process. The paper highlights some of the difficulties, dilemmas and challenges of a white researcher attempting to access the lived realities of ethnic minority children whose lives are 'invisible' in dominant discourses. Drawing on theoretical perspectives from the feminist, black and disability literature, the paper explores the implications for researching 'sensitive' topics in organisational contexts from the perspective of an outsider 'looking in' and argues for a conscious 'positioning' of the researcher who may or may not be part of the lifeworld of individuals or groups being researched.

Hypermodernist Travellers in a Postmodern World

Abstract: As travellers, we are usually aware that a map is not the territory it represents. However, as researchers, inquiring into practice, are we always aware of the domain within which that practice is situated? Descriptions of practice sometimes suggest that this is not the case. For example, do engineers actually believe that the models they develop and use are reflections of some reality? It is likely that an engineer never actually follows his models when developing an artefact or process. Similarly, we can ask ourselves whether we believe that a chef actually cooks by following a recipe. Possibly, only someone who does not know how to cook would think so. These idealised models are simply the basis for discussion/reflection and experimentation. It is sometimes the case, however, that descriptions of practice are produced based in a kind of rationality that suggests these misapprehensions are appropriate. In the context of research, can we say that postmodernism has any relevance? If, in the field of practice, only the uninitiated ever had illusions that the 'grand theories' of 'modernism' could be directly applicable, then informed research must recognize this also. To those with no illusions, such 'grand theories' were a basis for reflection and critique. Thus, to this extent we have always been 'modern' and still are. Rather than espousing a Postmodernist perspective, we might point to 'Hypermodernism' - a recognition that the 'grand theories' can only be used as metaphors, i.e. a basis for practical philosophy. By adopting such a stance, it is possible to avoid a false step of fighting 'straw men' and dismissing as worthless research that which could be useful material for reflection and learning when juxtaposed with other perspectives on practice. Models and explanatory frameworks within which research has been conducted need not be rejected as 'modernist' if there is recognition of their useful role as metaphor. At the same time, we suggest a need for a critically-informed approach to research which sheds light upon taken-for-granted assumptions and naive rationalities, illuminating metaphor and stimulating reflection.

Active exploration of emerging themes in a study of object-oriented requirements engineering: the "Evolutionary Case" approach

Abstract: The evolutionary case approach provides a framework for qualitative case study research in information systems (IS). It uses revelation, reinforcement, reflection and re-examination to explicitly explore emerging themes in interpretive case study research. The method is based on the progressive development of a theoretical model grounded initially in the literature and then refined using sequential case studies grounded in practice. The method addresses the gap which often separates data from conclusions in qualitative case study research by documenting the “revealed” and “reinforced” changes in the theoretical model as it evolves from the empirical data. The paper provides an illustrative study of the use of models in object-oriented requirements engineering to demonstrate the use of the evolutionary case approach.