Showing papers in "The Qualitative Report in 2014"

Qualitative Interview Design: A Practical Guide for Novice Investigators

Abstract: Qualitative research design can be complicated depending upon the level of experience a researcher may have with a particular type of methodology. As researchers, many aspire to grow and expand their knowledge and experiences with qualitative design in order to better utilize diversified research paradigms for future investigations. One of the more popular areas of interest in qualitative research design is that of the interview protocol. Interviews provide in-depth information pertaining to participants’ experiences and viewpoints of a particular topic. Often times, interviews are coupled with other forms of data collection in order to provide the researcher with a well-rounded collection of information for analyses. This paper explores the effective ways to conduct in-depth, qualitative interviews for novice investigators by employing a step-by-step process for implementation. Key Words: Informal Conversational Interview, General Interview Guide, OpenEnded Interviews

Reducing Confusion about Grounded Theory and Qualitative Content Analysis: Similarities and Differences

Abstract: Introduction Using an appropriate research method for inquiry is critical to successful research. Grounded theory and qualitative content analysis share similarities. Both are based on naturalistic inquiry that entails identifying themes and patterns and involves rigorous coding. They are both used to analyze and interpret qualitative data; however, the similarities and differences in grounded theory and qualitative content analysis have not been clarified in the literature (Priest, Roberts, & Woods, 2002), nor have they been consistently considered. To illustrate, both have been considered equivalent approaches to interpret qualitative data (e.g., Priest et al., 2002). Grounded theory was treated as a research methodology, and content analysis as a method (e.g., Crotty, 2003); furthermore, grounded theory was considered a theoretical framework and content analysis a research method of textual data analysis (e.g., Patton, 2002). Qualitative content analysis was considered a strategy for the analysis of qualitative descriptive studies (Sandelowski, 2000) and a technique with overtones of other research methods, such as ethnographic and grounded theory (Altheide, 1987). Qualitative content analysis was unknown as a research method until recently, especially in English-speaking countries, because of the dominance of quantitative content analysis (Schreier, 2012). Moreover, a researcher's approach purportedly following grounded theory actually seems closer to qualitative content analysis or other methods (Sandelowski & Barroso, 2003; Suddaby, 2006). Sandelowski and Barroso (2003) cited the discrepancy between "method claims and the actual use of methods" (p. 905) in research papers. Novice researchers, especially students who want to conduct qualitative research, are often confused by the characteristics of the two as result of the lack of comparative references. Some researchers who stated they had used grounded theory actually used qualitative content analysis, which incorporates some procedures of grounded theory, such as open coding or memoing (Sandelowski & Barroso, 2003). Thus, the purpose of this paper is to clarify ambiguities about the characteristics of grounded theory and qualitative content analysis. Using our own research as examples, we have discussed the similarities and differences in the two in the following six areas: a) background and philosophical basis, b) unique characteristics of each method, c) goals and rationale of each method, d) data analysis process, e) outcomes of the research, and f) evaluation of trustworthiness of research. We have also discussed the strengths and weaknesses of each. Through this paper, we expect to provide knowledge that can assist novice researchers in the selection of appropriate research methods for their inquiries. Background and Philosophical Basis Grounded Theory The term grounded theory was introduced in The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967) by Glaser and Strauss as "the discovery of theory from data--systematically obtained and analyzed in social research" (p. 1). Instead of verification of theories, they introduced a research method to arrive at a "theory suited to its supposed uses" contrasting with a "theory generated by logical deduction from a priori assumptions" (p. 3). According to Strauss and Corbin (1994) it is "a general methodology, a way of thinking about and conceptualizing data" (p. 275). The Grounded Theory Institute, run by Glaser, one of the founders of grounded theory, defined it as follows: Grounded Theory is an inductive methodology. Although many call Grounded Theory a qualitative method, it is not. It is a general method. It is the systematic generation of theory from systematic research. It is a set of rigorous research procedures leading to the emergence of conceptual categories. …

Avoiding Traps in Member Checking

Abstract: Due to the variations of design and protocol in qualitative inquiry, researchers may inadvertently create problems for themselves in terms of the trustworthiness of their research Miscommunication between participants and researchers can especially arise from the unique and unpredictable nature of human dynamics In this paper I contend that such problems, or traps, can easily and at times unknowingly be set during the qualitative process known as member checking, threatening the researcher/participant relationship and possibly the stability of the study In this paper, I examine member checking through five vignettes personally experienced These vignettes are preceded by a presentation of common procedures for increasing trustworthiness, and are followed by several recommendations for avoiding the setting and triggering of member checking traps Key Words: Narrative Inquiry, Qualitative, Member Checking, and Trustworthiness

Interviewing the Investigator: Strategies for Addressing Instrumentation and Researcher Bias Concerns in Qualitative Research.

Abstract: Instrumentation rigor and bias management are major challenges for qualitative researchers employing interviewing as a data generation method in their studies. A usual procedure for testing the quality of an interview protocol and for identifying potential researcher biases is the pilot study in which investigators try out their proposed methods to see if the planned procedures perform as envisioned by the researcher. Sometimes piloting is not practical or possible so an “interviewing the investigator” technique can serve as a useful first step to create interview protocols that help to generate the information proposed and to assess potential researcher biases especially if the investigator has a strong affinity for the participants being studied or is a member of the population itself. Key Words: Interviewing, Instrumentation, Researcher Bias, and Qualitative Research

Positionality: Reflecting on the Research Process

Abstract: Through this article, the author provides a reflection on the role of positionality in research, following the completion of a qualitative research project. Through the research project, the White researcher sought to explore the ways in which students of color experience a predominantly White university. Drawing on literature and findings from the research project, the author highlights potential challenges and opportunities of being cognizant of one’s positionality. These reflections illustrate the significance of positionality and serve as a reminder of its potential effects on the research process, as well as on participants and the researcher. The manuscript concludes with recommendations for researchers to carefully consider the potential influence of their positionality in any research setting. Keywords: Positionality, Research Process, Qualitative, Insider/Outsider

How I Learned to Design and Conduct Semi- structured Interviews: An Ongoing and Continuous Journey

Abstract: There is no doubt that qualitative interviewing is a flexible and powerful tool to capture the voices and the ways people make meaning of their experiences. I am always fascinated when I read articles and books that make use of the interviews to convey findings, messages, and the views of participants regarding a research topics and everyday situations. Since I have encountered increasing number of studies in the health field in which interviews are used, I decided to learn about the art and skills needed to use this powerful tool to explore and investigate the topics that are relevant to my line of research. Currently, I am involved in training and supporting the development of HIV junior researchers. Mentoring, the development of research competencies and working collaboratively are the three major components of the project. Pursuing a research career within the context of this project is a very intense experience. The junior researchers have many "stories to tell" and "learning to share" about their journey as researchers in a sensitive field. As a researcher myself, I would like to capture their voices and give meaning (or interpret) to their experience. I decided to use "interviews" as a tool and window to their stories. Here is my own ongoing journey of how I am learning to design and conduct semi-structured interviews. Stage 1--Selecting the kind of interview: Why semi-structure interviews? When I decided to use interviews, I proceeded to find a good reference to place the selected method within the larger qualitative framework. I looked for existing literature that expressed the pros and cons of the interview. Some of the writings that I found were posted in the internet as resources for graduate students of different field and disciplines. I made a list of the pros and cons and of the recommendations that I though applied to me. I printed a lot of the list of advices and do's and don'ts. I will probably be referring to them in the future. However, I needed to read the more conceptual and theoretical discussions. I wanted to know about the historical evolution. I came across a chapter written by Andrea Fontana and James Frey in the second edition of the book Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials edited by Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln (2005). I highly recommend reading this chapter. It introduced me to many possibilities under the category of qualitative interviewing. This contributed to inform my decision. I selected the semi-structured interview because I was able to narrow down some areas or topics that I want to ask to the junior researchers. A completely un-structured interview has the risk of not eliciting form the junior researchers the topics or themes more closely related to the research questions under consideration. There are some specific topics that I would like to cover, but at the same time I want to hear their stories. Consequently, I will use the format of an opening statement and a few general questions to elicit conversation. I will have some additional questions designed to probe for information if it does not come up. Stage 2--Establishing the ethical guidelines: I soon learned that entering the lives of other, especially the lives of colleagues, had to take into consideration ethical and moral issues. The chapter entitled, "Ethical Issues of Interviewing" in Kvale's Doing Interviews (2007), provided an excellent guideline and a useful list of aspects to consider throughout the different stages of the interview. I used these points to discuss my project with co-investigators and consultants that will conduct the project with me. Approaching the more advance stages of research design from a moral and ethical stance will facilitate my interaction with the interviewees. Issues of purpose, consequences, consent, identity, relationships, confidentiality and protection became central early in the process. I feel confident that I will approach my colleagues in a fair and ethical way. …

Interpretive Research Aiming at Theory Building: Adopting and Adapting the Case Study Design

Abstract: Although the advantages of case study design are widely recognised, its original positivist underlying assumptions may mislead interpretive researchers aiming at theory building. The paper discusses the limitations of the case study design for theory building and explains how grounded theory systemic process adds to the case study design. The author reflects upon his experience in conducting research on the articulation of both traditional social networks and new virtual networks in six rural communities in Peru, using both case study design and grounded theory in a combined fashion in order to discover an emergent theory. Key Words: Case Study, Interpretive Approach, Theory Building, and Grounded Theory

On the Inside Looking In: Methodological Insights and Challenges in Conducting Qualitative Insider Research

Abstract: As qualitative researchers, what stories we are told, how they are relayed to us, and the narratives that we form and share with others are inevitably influenced by our position and experiences as a researcher in relation to our participants. This is particularly true for insider research, which is concerned with the study of one’s own social group or society. This paper explores some of the possible methodological insights and challenges that may arise from insider research, and suggests several techniques and tools that may be utilized to aid in, rather than hinder, the process of the telling and sharing of participants’ stories. Such strategies may also be used to minimize ethical implications, avoid potential bias and increase the trustworthiness of the data gathered. This analysis draws on the author’s own experiences as an insider researcher and principal investigator on a research project that employed qualitative methodologies.

Using Wordle as a Supplementary Research Tool

Abstract: A word cloud is a special visualization of text in which the more frequently used words are effectively highlighted by occupying more prominence in the representation. We have used Wordle to produce word-cloud analyses of the spoken and written responses of informants in two research projects. The product demonstrates a fast and visually rich way to enable researchers to have some basic understanding of the data at hand. Word clouds can be a useful tool for preliminary analysis and for validation of previous findings. However, Wordle is an adjunct tool and we do not recommend that this method be used as a stand-alone research tool comparable to traditional content analysis methods. Key Words: Wordle, Research Tool, Word Clouds, and Qualitative Research

Innovative Data Collection Strategies in Qualitative Research

Abstract: Introduction In many disciplines and fields representing the social and behavioral sciences, the quantitative research paradigm, which has its roots in (logical) positivism, marked the first methodological wave (circa the 19th century), inasmuch as it was characterized by a comprehensive and formal set of assumptions and principles surrounding epistemology (e.g., independence of knower and known, objectivism, real causes determining outcomes reliably and validly, time- and context-free generalizations), ontology (e.g., single reality), axiology (e.g., value-free), methodology (e.g., deductive logic, testing or confirming hypotheses/theory), and rhetoric (e.g., rhetorical neutrality, formal writing style, impersonal passive voice, technical terminology). The years 1900 to 1950 marked what could be termed as the second methodological wave, in which many researchers who rejected (logical) positivism embraced the qualitative research paradigm (1). Denzin and Lincoln (2005a) refer to this era as the first historical moment or The Traditional Period for qualitative research. Vidich and Lyman (2000) describe earlier forms of ethnography that took place prior to the 17th century. However, Denzin and Lincoln's (2005a) The Traditional Period represents the first organized qualitative research movement. Although this moment was characterized by qualitative researchers attempting to write reliable, valid, and objective accounts of their field experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005a), it paved the way for the eight subsequent qualitative moments (see Table 1) that have incorporated paradigms that are extremely far removed from positivism. For example, in stark contrast to positivism, constructivism has been characterized by a different set of epistemological (e.g., subjectivist, knower and known are inseparable), ontological (e.g., relativism), axiological (e.g., value-bound), methodological (e.g., dialectical, hermeneutical), and rhetorical (e.g., informal writing style using personal voice and limited definitions) assumptions. From Table 1, it can be seen that Denzin and Lincoln (2005a) predict that in the seventh and eighth moments, "methodological contestation will continue within and among the many disciplinary communities of qualitative research--business, marketing, nursing, psychology, communications studies, cultural studies, education, sociology, anthropology, medical clinical practice and epidemiology, and others" (p. 1117). As noted on Table 1, Denzin and Lincoln (2005a) elaborate further upon the dichotomous nature of research by predicting that in the ninth moment, methodologists form two opposing camps (i.e., "gold standard" of scientific research vs. socially, culturally, ethnically, and racially responsive, communitarian, justice-oriented research). However, in this article, we discuss the various ways that qualitative researchers might transcend this methodological contestation and methodological divide by taking advantage of the innovative approaches to reflexivity (i.e., "the process of critical self-reflection on one's biases, theoretical predispositions, preferences, and so forth" [Schwandt, 2007, p. 260]; "inspection of potential sources of bias and their control [and] critically inspecting the entire research process" [Schwandt, p. 260]); and the latest technology and computermediated communication. As such, we call for a 10th moment, which we label as the period of Methodological Innovation, in which qualitative researchers go beyond the traditional ways of collecting primary and reflexive data. With this in mind, in this article, we provide an innovative meta-framework comprising strategies designed to guide qualitative data collection in the 21st century. We call our framework a meta-framework because it incorporates several new and existing frameworks. We begin by presenting various frameworks for collecting data in qualitative research. Specifically, we present strategies for collecting data from interviews, focus groups, observations, and documents/material culture--which represent four major sources of data in qualitative research (cf. …

Qualitative Methods in Higher Education Policy Analysis: Using Interviews and Document Analysis

Abstract: Introduction This article is the second of a short series of works designed to articulate the results and research approach I utilized in my study Analysis of Background Check Policy in Higher Education. In my first article, Evolution of Background Check Policy in Higher Education (Owen, 2014), I present the majority of my data collection and analysis results which aligned with Cooper, Fusarelli, and Randall's (2004) "technical dimension" of organizational policy which consists of understanding the "planning, practice, implementation, and evaluation" or what Cooper, Fusarelli, and Randall refer to as "the nuts and bolts of policymaking" (2004, p. 43-44). Within this technical dimension I was able to provide a recreation of Policy 8.1 as a formal written document through analyzing all the revisions and changes Policy 8.1 experienced throughout all four of its releases (June 2005, October 2007, November 2009, & May 2010). In a subsequent article, A Four-Dimensional Study of Background Check Policy in Higher Education (accepted for publication as of the date of this writing) I present my data collection and analysis results of Cooper, Fusarelli, and Randall's remaining three dimensions of organizational policy (as described in this article). This article focuses specifically on the research development, design, and overall approach I utilized in addressing my overall research question: What were the most important events and policy modifications, over approximately the past ten years, that influenced and challenged the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) administration to consider, adopt, and revise a formal background check policy? In this article I explain a) the approach I used to address relevant positional and political considerations associated with my study; b) the four research design questions I utilized to develop my research process; c) the conceptual framework I adopted which served as a basis and focus informing the methodological design and influencing the selection of data-collection instruments; and finally d) an explanation of my data analysis technique which involved the use of interviews and relevant documents associated with Georgia Institute of Technology's Background Check Policy and Program (referred to as "Policy 8.1" throughout the remainder of this article). Overall, this study was designed to attend to the concerns expressed by the AAUP (2006) regarding a lack of systematic studies on extensive background check policy in higher education. The main purpose of this study was to examine the history and experiences of Georgia Tech's adoption of background check policy with particular emphasis on what was learned and improved as the policy evolved and changed. Through a constructivist lens and under the iterative tradition, this policy analysis addressed my research question using descriptive and evaluative coding of four types of documents associated with Policy 8.1. As my coding progressed, I categorized codes that share similarities, threading them into groups that logically and intuitively fit together. Working with these categories/groups, I searched for patterns and emerging themes through analytic memo writing. This allowed me to structure a re-creation of the experiences and challenges that influenced related constituents of Policy 8.1 to consider, adopt, modify, and improve formal background check policy. This study offers a documented experience for higher education policy makers and HR professionals at other universities to use as an analogous situation in order to formulate more informed decisions regarding the use or non-use of same or similar policy. Positional and Political Considerations Dewalt and Dewalt's Degrees of Participation Kathleen and Billie Dewalt (2002) argue that "the degree of participation, membership role, and the amount of emotional involvement that ethnographers bring to the field will have an important impact on the kinds of data collected and the sort of analysis that is possible" (p. …

Using Grounded theory as a method of inquiry : advantages and disadvantages

Abstract: There are many challenges and criticisms attached to the conduct of research, none the least of which is a notion that much of the research undertaken in professional disciplines such as nursing may not have clinical and/or practical relevance. While there are a plethora of qualitative research methods that individuals must consider when designing research studies, one method stands out - Grounded Theory (GT). Grounded theory was developed in the early 1960’s by Glaser and Strauss. With its theoretical orientation based in sociology, GT strives to understand and explain human behavior through inductive reasoning processes (Elliott & Lazenbatt, 2005). Because of its emphasis on the utilization of a variety of data sources that are grounded in particular contexts, GT provides a natural theoretical fit when designing nursing research studies. In this article, the authors provide an overview of GT and then describe the appropriateness, advantages, and disadvantages of applying it as part of the research design process. Additionally, the authors highlight the importance of taking a reflexive position to stay engaged while interacting with the data, and explore how to apply GT theory to particular research questions and studies. Finally, the strengths and limitations of this method of inquiry as applied to nursing research using a brief case study approach is presented. Keywords: Grounded Theory, Advantages,

Recommendations for Using the Case Study Method in International Business Research

Abstract: Introduction The case study method has been used in several areas of international business (IB) research. For instance, the "Uppsala model" which is well-known to those researching internationalization is based on four Swedish cases introduced by Jan Johanson and Finn Wiedersheim-Paul in 1975. (The Uppsala model states that in the initiation of international activities, firms lack market knowledge and thus begin their foreign market entry from comparatively similar and well-known countries and prefer exporting as it is easier than establishing sales or manufacturing subsidiaries abroad.) Despite the success of this multi-case study, several scholars have affirmed that quantitative methods are more often used in many business and management disciplines, even if case studies and other qualitative methods are sometimes more justified (for an overview, see Cassell, Symon, Buehring, & Johnson, 2006; Ellram, 1996; Macpherson, Brooker, & Ainsworth, 2000; Marschan-Piekkari & Welch, 2004; Woodside & Wilson, 2003). Consequently, the case study methodology still needs more systematic attention. This paper aims to investigate the usefulness and limitations of case studies as a research methodology in IB and propose several ways for using the method more effectively. It starts from an overview of the literature on the strengths of single and multiple case studies. Then, the critique associated with this method is discussed. Moreover, the strengths and weaknesses of surveys are also briefly introduced, as this method is very often used in IB literature as an alternative or (sometimes) a complement to case studies. Finally, several opportunities for increasing the contribution of case studies are brought out. This study mainly focuses on IB and case study research literature, but some ideas from management, logistics, and marketing are also included. I selected the IB area because this was the focus of my dissertation (Vissak, 2003) and most of my published articles have been written in this field. I have had experience both from conducting case studies (my Ph.D. dissertation was based on seven cases and I have also used this method in a large share of my articles) and surveys (my MA dissertation and some of my articles were based on econometric models constructed from survey data). I have reviewed a large number of journal articles and conference papers (using both quantitative and qualitative methods) and also have been a discussant at several doctoral tutorials. In this article, I share my experience as an author, a reviewer, and a discussant. The Strengths of Case Studies Case study research is a very useful method as it allows expanding and generalizing theories by combining the existing theoretical knowledge with new empirical insights (Yin, 1994). This is especially important in studying topics that have not attracted much previous research attention. The application of this method can be useful for transcending the local boundaries of the investigated cases, capturing new layers of reality, and developing new, testable and empirically valid theoretical and practical insights (Eisenhardt, 1989; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Ghauri, 2004; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Stuart, McCutcheon, Handfield, McLachlin, & Samson, 2002; Tsoukas, 1989; Voss, Tsikriktsis, & Frohlich, 2002). Case studies are especially helpful for discovery, description, mapping and relationship building, but they may also be used for theory testing, refutation, refining (Gummesson, 2005; Hillebrand, Kok, & Biemans, 2001; Johnston, Leach, & Liu, 1999; Tsoukas; Voss et al.; Woodside & Wilson, 2003; Yin), illustration (Otley & Berry, 1998; Siggelkow, 2007), classification, hypothesis development (Bensabat, Goldstein, & Mead, 1987; Tellis, 1997b), prediction (Woodside & Wilson) and identification of further research needs (Halinen & Tornroos, 2005; Siggelkow, 2007; Simon, Sohal, & Brown, 1996). …

Netnography: A Method Specifically Designed to Study Cultures and Communities Online

Abstract: With many people now using online communities such as newsgroups, blogs, forums, social networking sites, podcasting, videocasting, photosharing communities, and virtual worlds, the internet is now an important site for research. Kozinets' (2010) new text explores netnography, or the conduct of ethnography over the internet - a method specifically designed to study cultures and communities online. Guidelines for the accurate and ethical conduct of ethnographic research online are set out, with detailed, step-by-step guidance to thoroughly introduce, explain, and illustrate the method to students and researchers. Kozinets surveys the latest research on online cultures and communities, focusing on the methods used to study them, with examples focusing on the blogosphere (blogging), microblogging, videocasting, podcasting, social networking sites, virtual worlds, and more. The book is essential reading for researchers and students in social sciences. Key Words: Netnography, Internet Research, Ethnography, Online Community, and Research Methods Introduction Netnography is an excellent resource for the seasoned qualitative researcher and a useful entry point for the newcomer to qualitative research. Kozinets (2010) has written in a coherent and thought-through style, making this text accessible for a very wide market. He mostly steers clear of complicated and contrived jargon, and he gives clear explanations and provides useful examples where needed. The included glossary also serves as a handy reference for more unfamiliar terms. The author points to further reading and information sources at the close of each chapter for those seeking further knowledge on the topics covered in the book. Kozinets (2010) writes, "Online communities form or manifest cultures, the learned beliefs, values and customs that serve to order, guide and direct the behavior of a particular society or group" (p. 12). As more and more people use the Internet, a growing number of them are utilizing it as a highly sophisticated communications device that enables and empowers the formation of communities. Online ethnography refers to a number of related online research methods that adapt to the study of the communities and cultures created through computer-mediated social interaction. Prominent among these ethnographic approaches is "netnography" (Kozinets). As modifications of the term ethnography, online ethnography and virtual ethnography (as well as many other methodological neologisms) designate online fieldwork that follows from the conception of ethnography as an adaptable method. These methods tend to leave most of the specifics of the adaptation to the individual researcher. The author of Netnography suggests the use of specific procedures and standards, and he argues for consideration of particular consensually-agreed upon techniques, justifying the use of a new name rather than a modification of the term ethnography. By whatever name, all ethnographies of online cultures and communities extend the traditional notions of field and ethnographic study, as well as ethnographic cultural analysis and representation, from the observation of co-located, face-to-face interactions to technologically mediated interactions in online networks and communities, and the culture (or cyberculture) shared between and among them (Kozinets, 2010). In doing so, these techniques are founded in the sense that traditional notions of a field site as a localized space are outdated. Kozinets suggests that ethnographic fieldwork can be meaningfully applied to computer-mediated interactions, an assertion that some have contested, but which is increasingly becoming accepted. A number of researchers have conducted ethnographies of online cultures and communities that are purely observational, in which the researcher is a specialized type of lurker (Kozinets, 2010). However, other researchers have emphasized a more participative approach, in which the researcher fully participates as a member of the online community. …

Accommodation Strategies of College Students with Disabilities.

Abstract: Introduction Just by the nature of it, it's not fun to do ... but I can't help it. It takes courage to ask. (Jack, a graduate student with cerebral palsy on requesting accommodations) Individuals with disabilities represent a population of college students that has tripled and by some estimates, quadrupled over the past twenty-five years (Olney, Kennedy, Brockelman, & Newsom, 2004; Palombi, 2000). This population of students has grown dramatically despite being historically underrepresented (Beilke & Yssel, 1999; Shevlin, Kenny, & McNeela, 2004). Legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), has been largely credited with the increasing access to higher education for individuals with disabilities, along with advances in assistive and medical technologies (Konur, 2006; O'Day & Goldstein, 2005; Rocco, 2002; Thomas, 2000; Wolf, 2001). Under the ADA, disability refers to a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of an individual. The phrase "students with special needs" can refer to individuals with disabilities but also includes students with other types of special needs such as limited English proficiency or students who may be considered homeless or transient. The ADA of 1990 requires institutions of higher education to provide reasonable accommodations in such areas as academic programming, examinations and evaluations, housing, and recreational facilities. As such, students with disabilities (SWDs) represent an emerging population in institutions of higher education, whose perceptions and experiences of higher education are ultimately shaped by their classroom and other collegiate experiences. Despite these increases in enrollment of this student population, many students with disabilities SWDs however fail to successfully complete their education (Quick, Lehmann, & Deniston, 2003). Several reasons have been suggested as to why SWDs have been leaving higher education. One reason cited has been a lack of understanding by institutions of higher education for this special student population. Greenbaum, Graham, and Scales (1995) have noted that "the most common institutional barrier cited by SWDs was a lack of understanding and cooperation from faculty and administrators ..." (p. 468). SWDs have reiterated this sentiment, reporting being generally dissatisfied with the level of knowledge and understanding on the part of faculty and administrators regarding their issues and concerns (Hill, 1996; Lehman, Davies, & Laurin, 2000; Wilson, Getzel, & Brown, 2000). In reviewing the extant literature regarding faculty attitudes towards SWDs, Rao (2004) concluded that amongst faculty and staff that there is a "need to be better informed about disabilities and students with disabilities" (p. 197). Thus, from this lack of understanding and knowledge on the part of faculty and staff, the integration of these students into collegiate environments may be considered hindered by stereotypical beliefs and discriminatory practices on the part of both professors and fellow students (Gmelch, 1998). Despite legislative mandates requiring institutions of higher education to accommodate SWDs along with providing information about disability accommodations, SWDs are not maximizing the services entitled to them. In reviewing the literature, SWDs are not maximizing services in two ways: (1) not seeking these services out, or (2) seeking these services too late. Disability service providers have reported that while 9% of full-time college students report having a disability that only between 1% and 3% of all students actually request disability-related services (Hartman, 1993). Research has suggest that these students may be apprehensive about requesting accommodations, and therefore unwilling to discuss their academic needs (Norton, 1997), or may simply desire to assert a new identity and independence when entering higher education (Torkelson Lynch & Gussel, 1996). …

Compatibility between Text Mining and Qualitative Research in the Perspectives of Grounded Theory, Content Analysis, and Reliability

Abstract: The objective of this article is to illustrate that text mining and qualitative research are epistemologically compatible. First, like many qualitative research approaches, such as grounded theory, text mining encourages open-mindedness and discourages preconceptions. Contrary to the popular belief that text mining is a linear and fully automated procedure, the text miner might add, delete, and revise the initial categories in an iterative fashion. Second, text mining is similar to content analysis, which also aims to extract common themes and threads by counting words. Although both of them utilize computer algorithms, text mining is characterized by its capability of processing natural languages. Last, the criteria of sound text mining adhere to those in qualitative research in terms of consistency and replicability. Key Words: Text Mining, Content Analysis, Exploratory Data Analysis, Natural Language Processing, Computational Linguistics, Grounded Theory, Reliability, and Validity

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research

Abstract: I recently had the pleasure of learning how to conduct ethnographic research for the first time. In this "How To" account I will describe the process by organizing my description around the following seven questions: 1. What is ethnography and what are its key characteristics? 2. Why do we conduct ethnography? 3. How do we collect data in ethnography? 4. What should we do before we get started? 5. What are the stages in conducting ethnography? 6. What should we do with all the data? 7. What pitfalls should we watch out for? What Is Ethnography and What Are Its Key Characteristics? How we define ethnography? Ethnography is the art and science used to describe a group or culture (Fetterman, 1998). According to Angrosino (2007), ethnographers search for predictable patterns in the lived human experiences by carefully observing and participating in the lives of those under study. Ethnography may also involve a full immersion of the researcher in the day-to-day lives or culture of those under study. Ethnography as a method has certain distinctive characteristics (Angrosino, 2007). First, it is conducted on-site or in a naturalistic setting in which real people live. Second, it is personalized since you as the researcher are both observer and participant in the lives of those people. Ethnography also collects data in multiple ways for triangulation over an extended period of time. The process is inductive, holistic and requires a long-term commitment from you. Finally, ethnography is dialogic since conclusions and interpretations formed through it can be given comments or feedback from those who are under study. Why Do We Conduct Ethnography? There are a number of methodologies that can be chosen for a research project. It is important for us to know the advantages of choosing ethnography over other types of methodologies or approaches. Below is a selective list of advantages of conducting ethnography, most culled from a list provided by Wolcott (1999): * Ethnography can be conducted entirely by one individual. * It is longitudinal in nature, allowing you as the researcher to observe and record changes over time. * It can be carried out almost at any place. * It focuses on working with others rather than treating them as objects. * It provides you with a detailed and rich database for further investigation and writing. * You can make the research not only interesting but adventurous. * It requires no expensive or elaborate tools or equipment. * It may present you with an opportunity to learn and use another language. * It draws upon your personal skills and strengths to advantage. * You often have exclusive domain or sole responsibility in the chosen setting or site. * Your role is recognized. * It offers you an opportunity to integrate professional and personal life. * It allows you to get an insider's view of reality. * It can provide deep insightful data. * It can be used to study marginalized groups of people closed to other forms of research. * It allows you to collect data in a realistic or naturalistic setting in which people act naturally, focusing on both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. How Do We Collect Data In Ethnography? There are three modes of data collection in ethnography: observation, interviewing and archival research (Angrosino, 2007): * Observation: Participant observation is unique in that it combines the researcher's participation in the lives of the people under study while also maintaining a professional distance (Fetterman, 1998). According to Angrosino (2007), observation is the act of perceiving the activities and interrelationships of people in the field setting. * Interviewing: Interviewing is the process of directing a conversation to collect information (Angrosino, 2007). …

Autoethnography as a Transformative Research Method

Abstract: Autoethnography is a qualitative, transformative research method because it changes time, requires vulnerability, fosters empathy, embodies creativity and innovation, eliminates boundaries, honors subjectivity, and provides therapeutic benefits. This article discusses these seven lenses using select passages from “Jesus Christ and Reese's Peanut Butter Cups: A Narrative on Homosexual Identity, Spirituality, and Human Development” (an unpublished manuscript) written in 2013. Keywords: autoethnography, reflexivity, transformative, qualitative research, education The Journey Begins: Falling Into Autoethnography Several months ago I began a journey. The journey was a personal adventure into my subconscious in an effort to understand and find closure with certain traumatic events from my past, but what started out as a simple story quickly became a full-fledged research project centered around embodied writing, performance, and autoethnography. The final product later came to be known as “Jesus Christ and Reese's TM Peanut Butter Cups: A Narrative on Homosexual Identity, Spirituality, and Human Development” (“JCRPBC”; Custer, 2013). At first, the method I chose to use for this article was foreign to me, but as I immersed myself in the existing literature and reflected upon my style of writing, I came to know and embrace autoethnography. Autoethnography is a style of autobiographical writing and qualitative research that explores an individual’s unique life experiences in relationship to social and cultural institutions. Carolyn Ellis in the Handbook of Autoethnography describes this powerful qualitative method eloquently. … autoethnography is not simply a way of knowing about the world; it has become a way of being in the world, one that requires living consciously, emotionally, reflexively. It asks that we not only examine our lives but also consider how and why we think, act, and feel as we do. Autoethnography requires that we observe ourselves observing, that we interrogate what we think and believe, and that we challenge our own assumptions, asking over and over if we have penetrated as many layers of our own defenses, fears, and insecurities as our project requires. It asks that we rethink and revise our lives, making conscious decisions about who and how we want to be. And in the process, it seeks a story that is hopeful, where authors ultimately write themselves as survivors of the story they are living. (Jones, 2013, p. 10) The process of autoethnography can uncover many different feelings within the writer. It can be joyful, sad, revealing, exciting, and occasionally painful. Diana Raab (2013) writes, “Because many autoethnographical studies relate to painful experiences, the researcher may encounter difficult moments during the course of the research and writing” (p. 14). Not only does an individual have to face their own pain, often times they are exposed to the pain and anguish of other people who have experienced similar circumstances. It is not an easy task to

Philosophical Roots of Classical Grounded Theory: Its Foundations in Symbolic Interactionism.

Abstract: Although many researchers have discussed the historical relationship between the Grounded Theory methodology and Symbolic Interactionism, they have not clearly articulated the congruency of their salient concepts and assumptions. The purpose of this paper is to provide a thorough discussion of this congruency. A hypothetical example about smoking among college students is included in this paper to illustrate this relationship. This paper will be useful for qualitative researchers who seek a fuller understanding of how the assumptions and concepts provided by Symbolic Interactionism can inform the researcher who adopts a Grounded Theory methodology to investigate human behaviour. The relevance of this congruency for nursing researchers is discussed. Key Words: Symbolic Interactionism, Grounded Theory, Philosophical Congruency, and Nursing Research The relationship between classical Grounded Theory (Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and the interpretive tradition of Symbolic Interactionism is strong and historical. Although this relationship has been discussed in previous publications as a "given," limited literature has explained the connections between their salient assumptions and concepts precisely and thoroughly (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986; Crotty, 1998; Speziale & Carpenter, 2007). Hence, the purpose of this paper is to provide a thorough and precise discussion about the congruency between the ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions of Grounded Theory and Symbolic Interactionism. Furthermore, a hypothetical example about smoking among college students that can be addressed from a Symbolic Interactionist/Grounded Theorist perspective is included in this paper to illustrate this relationship. This paper will be useful for qualitative researchers who seek a fuller understanding of how the assumptions and concepts provided by Symbolic Interactionism can inform the researcher who adopts a Grounded Theory methodology to investigate human behaviour. In other words, grounded theorists who adopt Symbolic Interactionism as a philosophical underpinning for their studies need to understand how the participants' behaviours have been shaped through social interaction in a particular context. That is, the researcher's goal is to understand the behaviour and the meanings people give to their experience in a natural setting in order to discover the basic psychosocial process (Glaser, 1978). According to Chenitz and Swanson (1986), conceptualizing human behaviour in its context helps researchers to examine the behaviour in relation to the social circumstances, rules, laws, and conditions that govern the shared meanings of objects and affect human behaviour. This paper is divided into three sections. The first section sheds light on the concepts of Symbolic Interactionism that help the reader to fully understand this comparison from a philosophical angle. Thus, in the first section the authors address the salient concepts of Symbolic Interactionism. In the second section we discuss the compatibility between the main goal of both Grounded Theory and Symbolic Interactionism in a manner that differs from the account by Milliken and Schreiber (2001). The focus of the third section pertains to the relationship between the assumptions of Grounded Theory and the assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism followed by a conclusion. Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism This first section addresses the salient concepts of Symbolic Interactionism. These concepts include: the self-concept (the "I" and "Me"), the object (e.g., self as an object), "role-taking," "looking-glass self," and definition of the situation. The Self-Concept The purpose of this section is to give a thorough discussion about the self-concept and the communication process of its components ("I" and "Me"). The self is defined from the Symbolic Interactionism perspective as a complex interpretive process that involves a continuous communication between the "I" and the "Me;" that is, the "I" acts and the "Me" defends, evaluates, and interprets the self as reflected by others (Mead, 1934). …

Simulation in Nursing Education: A Review of the Research

Abstract: In recent years, high-fidelity simulation in nursing education has become an increasingly popular educational tool. Is simulation a new technique? Does simulation have positive learning outcomes? Is there evidence-based research to substantiate the use of simulators in education and particularly in nursing education? This discussion will look at several studies and attempt to answer these questions. According to Webster's (2003) to simulate is "to look or act like." In the broadest sense this would include not only mechanical simulators but also role playing, scenario settings, and case studies, to mention a few types of simulation. Using this definition we realize simulation in nursing education has been around a long time--whether it has involved using oranges to practice intramuscular and subcutaneous injections, learning CPR on a static manikin, inserting foley catheters in a manikin in a lab setting, or role playing major mental disorders and communication skills in mental health. These are all simulations in one form or another, and what they have in common is that they are done in an artificial situation so the student or staff member is later able to practice safely in the clinical setting. Ward-Smith (2008) noted that the first documented use of higher level simulators was with pilots during World War II. They continue to be used today to train pilots in simulated situations such as loss of power, engine failures, and poor weather conditions. Safety is the reason behind using simulators in pilot training as well. In 2003 the Institute of Medicine adapted simulation as a teaching methodology to be used in programs in education (Ward-Smith). In nursing, there is limited research on the effectiveness and outcomes when using simulators and simulations. In healthcare the emphasis is on giving accurate and safe care to patients, and simulators and simulations allow for the practice of this important goal in a less threatening environment. In 2003, the National League of Nurses (NLN) endorsed the use of simulations in order to prepare students in critical thinking and self-reflection as well as preparing them for the complex clinical environment. In 2007, with a grant funded by the Laerdal Medical Corporation, the NLN began a three-year research study on the use of simulation in nursing education. The project, called the Simulation Innovation and Resource Center (SIRC), involved educators from the United States and also eight international educators from Australia, Canada, Chile, Japan, Norway, Scotland, and China (Hovancsek, Jeffries, Escudero, Foulds, Huseb, Iwamoto, et al., 2009). The goal of the project was to develop web-based courses that use high technology simulations. Out of this study came a resource center web site that assists educators with scenario design (http://sirc.nln.org/). According to Hovancsek et al. (2009), patient safety has become a priority concern, and the use of simulators can prepare nurses for mock disasters that involve other professionals such as military, police, firefighter, paramedics, and physicians. Interdisciplinary mock drills are held to better prepare communities for disasters. The study found the demand for higher quality healthcare both nationally and internationally has increased and the use of simulation will improve health care (Hovancsek et al.). Lasater (2007) points out that the nursing shortage has resulted in a more diverse group of students being interested in nursing. At a time when there is a critical need for nurses, nursing education faces a critical shortage in nursing faculty. In spite of the inconsistent practice experiences students receive, the demand is present for a higher level of knowledge upon entering the professional work arena. In order to study simulation and clinical judgment, Lasater conducted an exploratory study that looked at four dimensions of clinical judgment development and the interaction between them. …

Ten Steps for Conceptualizing and Conducting Qualitative Research Studies in a Pragmatically Curious Manner

Abstract: In a world of methodological pluralism and mixed-methods, qualitative researchers can take a pathway of pragmatic curiosity by exploring their research interests and the possible design and methodology choices to create studies that not only allow them to pursue their investigative curiosities, but also result in coherent and effective systems of procedural choices. Ten steps are offered for researchers to conceive and conduct qualitative research projects that are both responsive to research goals

Technology and Teaching: A Conversation among Faculty Regarding the Pros and Cons of Technology.

Abstract: Technology is often touted as the savior of education (Collins & Haverson, 2009). However, is technology the panacea that it is made out to be? This paper is an extended conversation among a group of faculty members at three different universities and their attitudes and beliefs about technology and education. Three professors shared their pro-technology stance and three took a less favorable view. The contents of the conversation were then analyzed by a neutral party to extract the various themes that emerged. What was discovered was that were three major threads to the conversation: technology and educational access, online education, and technology and instructional strategies. While there was little agreement, throughout the evolution of the conversation, both sides began to understand each other a little more. Keywords: Technology, Equity, Online Learning, Pedagogy

On Doctoral Student Development: Exploring Faculty Mentoring in the Shaping of African American Doctoral Student Success

Abstract: This study examines the influence of faculty mentorship in the shaping of African American doctoral student success. A case analysis framework is used to investigate the belief systems that doctoral students held about their doctoral experience. Data collection involved a one-phase semistructured interview protocol used to gather information about these experiences from a post-degree perspective. African American doctoral degree completion is addressed as a critical function of student success within an elite educational context. Results of the study demonstrate that the African American doctoral degree completion is complicated by students’ perceptions of faculty advising, faculty behavior and the lack of

The Accordion and the Deep Bowl of Spaghetti: Eight Researchers’ Experiences of Using IPA as a Methodology

Abstract: Since 1996 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) has grown rapidly and been applied in areas outside its initial “home” of health psychology. However, explorations of its application from a researcher's perspective are scarce. This paper provides reflections on the experiences of eight individual researchers using IPA in diverse disciplinary fields and cultures. The research studies were conducted in the USA, Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK by researchers with backgrounds in business management, consumer behaviour, mental health nursing, nurse education, applied linguistics, clinical psychology, health and education. They variously explored media awareness, employee commitment, disengagement from mental health services, in-vitro fertilisation treatment, student nurses' experience of child protection, second language acquisition in a university context, the male experience of spinal cord injury and academics experience of working in higher education and women’s experiences of body size and health practices. By bringing together intercultural, interdisciplinary experiences of using IPA, the paper discusses perceived strengths and weaknesses of IPA.

Recruitment in Qualitative Public Health Research: Lessons Learned During Dissertation Sample Recruitment

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to describe the recruitment challenges faced by eight public health graduate students when conducting qualitative dissertation research. The authors summarize their dissertation studies, describe recruitment challenges, and provide strategies and recommendations used to address challenges. The authors identified twelve recruitment issues which they grouped into three major categories: (a) obtaining consent; (b) working with gatekeepers; and (c) accessing participants. The authors propose three recommendations to consider in participant recruitment, which are: (a) collaborate with gatekeepers; (b) use additional recruitment tools; and (c) understand your target population. The compilation of experiences from multiple graduate students from a diverse selection of topics provides valuable insight and resources when planning a qualitative research study in the field of public health.

Grounded Theory Methodology : Positivism, Hermeneutics, and Pragmatism

Abstract: Glaserian grounded theory methodology, which has been widely adopted as a scientific methodology in recent decades, has been variously characterised as “hermeneutic” and “positivist.” This commentary therefore takes a different approach to characterising grounded theory by undertaking a comprehensive analysis of: (a) the philosophical paradigms of positivism, hermeneutics, and pragmatism; and (b) the general philosophical questions of the aims of science and the issue of choosing a scientific methodology. The commentary then seeks to position grounded theory methodology in terms of these philosophical perspectives. The study concludes that grounded theory methodology contains elements of positivism, hermeneutics, and pragmatism. In coming to this conclusion, the study clarifies the degree to which these three perspectives are found within Glaserian grounded theory methodology. Key Words: Grounded Theory, Positivism, Hermeneutics, Pragmatism.

Critical Approach to Reflexivity in Grounded Theory

Abstract: A problem with the popular desire to legitimate one’s research through the inclusion of reflexivity is its increasingly uncritical adoption and practice, with most researchers failing to define their understandings, specific positions, and approaches. Considering the relative recentness with which reflexivity has been explicitly described in the context of grounded theory, guidance for incorporating it within this research approach is currently in the early stages. In this article, we illustrate a three-stage approach used in a grounded theory study of how parents of children with autism navigate intervention. Within this approach, different understandings of reflexivity are first explored and mapped, a methodologically consistent position that includes the aspects of reflexivity one will address is specified, and reflexivityrelated observations are generated and ultimately reported. According to the position specified, we reflexively account for multiple researcher influences, including on methodological decisions, participant interactions and data collection, analysis, writing, and influence of the research on the researcher. We hope this illustrated approach may serve both as a potential model for how researchers can critically design and implement their own contextspecific approach to reflexivity, and as a stimulus for further methodological

Issues in the Analysis of Focus Groups: Generalisability, Quantifiability, Treatment of Context and Quotations

Abstract: In this paper I discuss some concerns related to the analysis of focus groups: (a) the issue of generalisation; (b) the problems of using numbers and quantifying in the analysis; (c) how the concrete situation of the focus groups could be included in the analysis, and (d) what formats can be used when quoting from focus groups Problems with respect to generalisation are discussed; types of generalisation are presented which can be used in focus group research Arguments are made against using a primarily quantitative perspective in the evaluation of focus group data It is argued that the situation of the particular group discussion should be taken into account in the analysis A scheme for analysis that has been developed by the author is presented Suggestions are made for the characteristics of the quotations in the analyses

Computer Aided Phenomenography: The Role of Leximancer Computer Software in Phenomenographic Investigation

Abstract: The qualitative research methodology of phenomenography has traditionally required a manual sorting and analysis of interview data. In this paper I explore a potential means of streamlining this procedure by considering a computer aided process not previously reported upon. Two methods of lexicological analysis, manual and automatic, were examined from a phenomenographical perspective and compared. It was found that the computer aided process – Leximancer – was a valid investigative tool for use in phenomenography. Using Leximancer was more efficacious than manual operation; the researcher was able to deal with large amounts of data without bias, identify a broader span of syntactic properties, increase reliability, and facilitate reproducibility. The introduction of a computer aided methodology might also encourage other qualitative researchers to engage with

New Emerging Technologies in Qualitative Research

Abstract: According to Mayan (2009) being a qualitative researcher means to "enjoy living and learning with people to collectively make sense of our world. Qualitative research is not only done with people, it is also accomplished through people..." (p. 12). By virtue of its various definitions, qualitative research involves a great deal of human communication. Communication has a major role in all aspects of qualitative research from planning to execution. While many new qualitative research technologies have evolved over the past few decades, the most critical and influential ones are those related to communication technologies. As there is limited data about the use of communication technologies in qualitative research, the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the new emerging technologies in qualitative research. We provide descriptions of the evolving technologies and highlight the importance of qualitative researchers being up to date with these developments.