Showing papers in "The Qualitative Report in 2016"

Preparing for Interview Research: The Interview Protocol Refinement Framework

Abstract: Interviews provide researchers with rich and detailed qualitative data for understanding participants' experiences, how they describe those experiences, and the meaning they make of those experiences (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Given the centrality of interviews for qualitative research, books and articles on conducting research interviews abound. These existing resources typically focus on: the conditions fostering quality interviews, such as gaining access to and selecting participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Seidman, 2013; Weiss, 1994); building trust (Rubin & Rubin, 2012); the location and length of time of the interview (Weiss, 1994); the order, quality, and clarity of questions (Patton, 2015; Rubin & Rubin, 2012); and the overall process of conducting an interview (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Patton, 2015). Existing resources on conducting research interviews individually offer valuable guidance but do not come together to offer a systematic framework for developing and refining interview protocols. In this article, I present the interview protocol refinement (IPR) framework--a four-phase process to develop and fine-tune interview protocols. IPR's four-phases include ensuring interview questions align with the study's research questions, organizing an interview protocol to create an inquiry-based conversation, having the protocol reviewed by others, and piloting it. Qualitative researchers can strengthen the reliability of their interview protocols as instruments by refining them through the IPR framework presented here. By enhancing the reliability of interview protocols, researchers can increase the quality of data they obtain from research interviews. Furthermore, the IPR framework can provide qualitative researchers with a shared language for indicating the rigorous steps taken to develop interview protocols and ensure their congruency with the study at hand (Jones, Torres, & Arminio, 2014). IPR framework is most suitable for refining structured or semi-structured interviews. The IPR framework, however, may also support development of non-structured interview guides, which have topics for discussions or a small set of broad questions to facilitate the conversation. For instance, from a grounded theory perspective, piloting interview protocols/guides are unnecessary because each interview is designed to build from information learned in prior interviews (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Yet, given the important role the first interview plays in setting the foundation for all the interviews that follow, having an initial interview protocol vetted through the recursive process I outline here may strengthen the quality of data obtained throughout the entire study. As such, I frame the IPR framework as a viable approach to developing a strong initial interview protocol so the researcher is likely to elicit rich, focused, meaningful data that captures, to the extent possible, the experiences of participants. The Four-Phase Process to Interview Protocol Refinement (IPR) The interview protocol framework is comprised of four-phases: Phase 1: Ensuring interview questions align with research questions, Phase 2: Constructing an inquiry-based conversation, Phase 3: Receiving feedback on interview protocols Phase 4: Piloting the interview protocol. Each phase helps the researcher take one step further toward developing a research instrument appropriate for their participants and congruent with the aims of the research (Jones et al., 2014). Congruency means the researchers' interviews are anchored in the purpose of the study and the research questions. Combined, these four phases offer a systematic framework for developing a well-vetted interview protocol that can help a researcher obtain robust and detailed interview data necessary to address research questions. Phase 1: Ensuring Interview Questions Align With Research Questions The first phase focuses on the alignment between interview questions and research questions. …

Establishing Construct Validity and Reliability: Pilot Testing of a Qualitative Interview for Research in Takaful (Islamic Insurance)

Abstract: This paper describes the process of the conduct of preliminary tests to determine the construct and content validity of the chosen data collection method for a study into the relationship between Islamic principles and objectives, Islamic financial law and Takaful (Isamic Insurance) operations and practices in Nigeria.Semi-structured interviews were tested on a select group of respondents mirroring the intended subjects in the field.The pilot test showed the construct to be both valid and reliable while giving the opportunity to insert refinements to the research tool.

Making Phenomenological Inquiry Accessible: A Review of Jonathan A. Smith, Paul Flowers, and Michael Larkin’s Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method, and Research

Abstract: Jonathan A. Smith, Paul Flowers, and Michael Larkin’s Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method, and Research is an accessible account of an emergent qualitative psychology methodology which has great potential for studying a variety of psychological areas as well as being applied to studies outside of the behavioral sciences. The authors avoid the complexity found in some texts on phenomenological inquiry and present a simple plan for conducting this style of research.

Applying Constant Comparative Method with Multiple Investigators and Inter-Coder Reliability

Abstract: When qualitative research methods are used, data analysis may be completed by an individual or a group of two or more people. Researchers accustomed to completing independent data analysis may be surprised by the large amount of additional time and effort that working with a research group requires. Collaboration adds complexity to the work of data analysis and formulating findings, making a collaborative qualitative study more labor intensive (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Additional coordination and iteration are required for the qualitative coding process for creating themes, analyzing for meaning, and drawing conclusions. When members of a research team are geographically separated and working in a virtual environment, data analysis may be more challenging. However, the collaboration provides several benefits that derive from the additional perspectives provided by multiple researchers. In striving for consensus in the findings, the nuances in meaning brought by multiple researchers adds richness to the analysis by prompting deeper analysis. Inter-coder reliability (ICR) can be used to drive towards consensus but was found to be more suited for identifying nuance and significant meanings in the qualitative data. This paper explores the experiences of two geographically separated researchers who applied Constant Comparative Method (CCM), based on grounded theory. The researchers applied action research to formulate a deliberate 10-step method for coding data, creating meaning, and structuring an exploratory model that represents findings. Collaboration was facilitated through synchronous online video discussions and email exchanges to work through analysis activities between the two researchers. Literature Review Literature on qualitative research, and specifically on the CCM methodology used by the researchers performing this study, reveals a diversity of positions that reflect the richness of qualitative research (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). There are supporters and opponents to qualitative research in general and CCM in particular. This review begins with a basic explanation of the approach that differentiates qualitative research from quantitative; then explores the methods used in qualitative research to address issues common to quantitative researchers involving validity and reliability. Finally, the review will focus on the literature concerning advantages, disadvantages, and potential roles of ICR measures in CCM. Inductive Approach The original purpose of qualitative methods was to design a structured approach for generating new theory that purports to explain an experience or phenomenon for which current understanding is inadequate. Qualitative research uses inductive reasoning (i.e., developing explanations from information) rather than the deductive (i.e., using theory to predict outcomes based on information) to draw conclusions from data. It explores a deliberately selected set of data, such as interviews, observations, or video/audio logs, to identify patterns that can be linked causally in a model or theory (Thomas, 2003). Models generated by qualitative theory can be tested using quantitative methods to provide further support for the theory. Quantitative research uses existing theory to generate a question or hypothesis that can be tested empirically (Curry, Nembhard, & Bradley, 2009). Grounded Theory Grounded theory is a qualitative research method developed to facilitate discovering patterns in data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). It uses a systematic approach to review participant views collected from an experience in order to allow patterns and themes to emerge over multiple passes through the data. Strauss (1987) further elaborated on the data analysis methodology, creating CCM, in which the researcher developed codes while reviewing transcripts or other verbatim data to identify constructs, and iteratively compared texts identified with the same code to ensure they were representative of the same construct. …

Focus Group Data Saturation: A New Approach to Data Analysis

Abstract: The qualitative research "gold standard" for quality research is data saturation. The limited literature on reporting data saturation and transparency in qualitative research has supported an inconsistent research standard suggesting researchers have not adequately reported data saturation to promote transparency (O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). Confusion regarding how to analyze qualitative data to achieve data saturation, how to write clear qualitative research findings, and present these findings in a usable manner continues (Sandelowski & Leeman, 2012). A phenomenological asynchronous online focus group using WordPress[R] was employed to answer the research question. Based on the current literature on the topic of focus group data saturation, the study findings were analyzed by group, individual, and day of the study. Additionally, the data was presented in a chart format providing a visible approach to data analysis and saturation. Employing three different methods of data analysis to confirm saturation and transparency provides qualitative researchers with different approaches to data analysis for saturation and enhancement of trustworthiness. Placing data in a visual configuration provides an alternative method of presenting research findings. The data analysis methods presented are not meant to replace existing methods of achieving data saturation but to provide an alternate approach to achieving data saturation and reporting the findings in a clear, usable format. Keywords: Qualitative Research, Focus Group, Data Saturation, Trustworthiness The qualitative research "gold standard" for quality research is data saturation. Instead of relying on the number of participants, qualitative research focuses on different perspectives and opinions of participants. The limited literature on reporting data saturation and transparency in qualitative research has supported an inconsistent research standard suggesting researchers have not adequately reported data saturation to promote transparency (O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). Confusion regarding how to analyze qualitative data to achieve data saturation, how to write clear qualitative research findings, and present these findings in a usable manner continues (Sandelowski & Leeman, 2012). This article provides a new approach for analyzing phenomenological focus group data for saturation and presenting usable findings. Focus Group Study A 10-day phenomenological focus group employed an asynchronous online research design in a quest to understand the lived experience of male registered nurses (RNs) seeking employment in healthcare organizations, particularly when choosing a nursing specialty. Institutional Research Board (IRB) approval was obtained from the University of Phoenix. Five open-ended interview questions were posted on the study's WordPress[R] website. Participants were required to answer the five interview questions and respond to two fellow study participants to facilitate discussion. The participants were able to view the postings of each participant during the study promoting interaction. Eight male RNs completed the 10-day study. Data saturation was set at five responses per theme and subtheme. Trustworthiness criteria were met. Saturation: Current Approach Thematic data saturation is reached when there are no new emerging ideas in the data (Bowen, 2008; Houghton, Casey, Shaw, & Murphy, 2013; O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). As noted by Kerr, Nixon, and Wild (2010), the term data saturation is best described as data adequacy meaning no new information is obtained. Complicating the issue of data saturation is the lack of evidence and guidelines in current qualitative research in how to reach data saturation (Bowen, 2008; Francis et al., 2010; Kerr et al., 2010). O'Reilly and Parker (2012) discuss saturation noting that the idea of data saturation begins with the qualitative research method of grounded theory and specific theory-driven meanings. …

More Tools for the Synthesist’s Toolbag in Harris Cooper’s Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-by-Step Approach (4th ed.)

Abstract: The need for research synthesis grows along with the volume of contemporary published scholarship. Reporting such synthesis warrants rigorous guidelines for preparing these important, information-rich documents that make statements concerning the state of knowledge about a topic, gaps in knowledge, or the aggregation or integration of primary research. Cooper’s revised and expanded fourth edition of Research Synthesis and MetaAnalysis: A Step-by-Step Approach (2010) provides these needed guidelines with special attention given to the threats to validity at all steps of the research synthesis process.

Using Paired Depth Interviews to Collect Qualitative Data

Abstract: This article defines and describes paired depth interviews, discusses conceptualizations of paired depth interviews using Roulston's framework, delineates the strengths and limitations of paired depth interviews, and provides examples of paired depth interviews utilized in helping professions.

Member Checking Process with Adolescent Students: Not Just Reading a Transcript

Abstract: There is nothing like looking, if you want to find something. You certainly usually find something, if you look, but it not always quite the something you are after. (J. R. R. Tolkien) Our Story As a recent doctoral student, Amber's first encounter with member checking was in a research course entitled Qualitative Inquiry in Education taught by the second author, Cassie. In the second week of this class, we discussed the ethical implications of member checking (Lareau, 2011)--the challenges and dilemmas we may encounter as developing researchers and will continuously face throughout our life passions in the field of educational research. The second encounter was again in this course, when we talked about ways to establish rigor and trustworthiness within our studies. As we discussed member checking, it we situated as a "best practice" in the field of qualitative research, a practice that as a graduate research assistant was never a part of any research project I (1) conducted involving children, adolescents, or even adults. It was not until my dissertation that I came face-to-face with how to conduct member checking as I felt it was not only important to check my interpretations (e.g., Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Tracy, 2010); but it was also as a vital part of my research agenda, which was providing adolescent students with a voice in an era when educational policies and other choices are made for them (e.g., single-sex classes or ability grouped tracking). Cassie, who also served as Amber's methodological advisor for her dissertation, suggested looking to other authors for guidance on this approach. As the opening quote illustrates, I began searching for how other researchers have conducted member checking, but much of what I found simply defined member checking and "presented [it] as should do's rather than must do's" (Carlson, 2010, p. 1102; italics in original). For example, Glesne (2006) defined the process as "sharing interview transcripts, analytical thoughts, and/or drafts of the final report with research participants to make sure you are representing them and their ideas accurately" (p. 38). Similarly, Stake (1995) discussed participants' role in the process as the actor is requested to examine rough drafts of writing where the actions or words of the actor are featured ... The actor is asked to review the material for accuracy and palatability. The actor may be encouraged to provide alternative language or interpretation but is not promised that that version will appear in the final report. Regardless, some of that feedback is worthy of inclusion. (pp. 115-116) As another example, Richards (2003) defined member checking as a form of validation to "seek views of members on accuracy of data gathered, descriptions, or even interpretations" (p. 287). Even within the second edition of the Handbook of Qualitative Research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), a handbook of 41 chapters, 1065 pages, I found at most 10 pages dedicated to member checking (e.g., credibility, reliability, rigor); hence, there was not a full chapter dedicated to member checking, which I believe to be an important component of sound qualitative research methods. I recognize that this process extends the life of a study and may bring about negative reactions and emotions from participants; and in the end, do little to change researchers' interpretations and final text (Lareau, 2011), which is why researchers may have chosen to not conduct member checks or write about their process. Additionally, I am not discrediting the work of these individuals as I believe their work is influential to the past, present, and future work of researchers, but I felt trapped in a box of frustration. This frustration became more intense as the process of member checking was presented as a list of ways to conduct member checking. For example, through a focus group discussion, by distributing copies of the draft manuscript to individuals for their written comments, in (formal or informal) one-on-one interviews, via e-mail discussions, or by presenting findings in a public forum with participants present and then recording or taking notes on the conversations that ensue. …

Womanism and Snowball Sampling: Engaging Marginalized Populations in Holistic Research

Abstract: There exists a need for research methods that assist researchers in engaging with marginalized groups in ways that are more natural and holistic for the members of those groups (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Vaz, 1997). Robert Guthrie (2004) in his book, Even the Rat Was White: The History of Psychology, provides a review of the historical research in the field of psychology in which he points to the inherent racial bias that privileged the White male experience in most of the psychological research. Guthrie's analysis showed that the White experience was valued and accepted as the normal standard, thus marginalizing and labeling as abnormal any experience that did not adhere to White standards. This type of privileging of the White experience in research is not limited to psychology. Many social justice researchers, with theoretical groundings in womanist, feminist and critical race traditions, have criticized "the existing literature for its lack of attention to the needs and issues of populations currently marginalized in society" due to a failure to recognize the intersection of identity factors such as race, class, gender, sexual orientation and religion (Fassinger & Morrow, 2013, pp. 69-70). An Anglocentric approach neglects to take into account the methods that feel most natural to women, people of color, and other marginalized populations. (Borum, 2005; Denzin, Lincoln, & Smith, 2008; Solorzano & Yosso, 2002; Taylor, 1998; Vaz 1997). A critique of such limited research practices has led many scholars to begin inquiries into systemic practices of inequality and oppression even within the research methods themselves (Lyons & Bike, 2013; Stanley, 2013). And "from these critiques has emerged a greater scholarly focus on investigating the effects of systematic forms of inequity and oppression, and a concurrent desire to empower marginalized groups through socially just research practices" (Fassinger & Morrow, 2013, p. 69-70). Qualitative research methods provide for more opportunities to engage with marginalized groups in holistic research than do quantitative methods (Denzin, Lincoln, & Smith, 2008; Lindsay-Dennis, 2011; Miller & Treitel, 1991). Black womanist researchers, whose research is rooted in Black womanist and feminist praxis, utilize research methods like "storytelling, narrative, voice, autoethnography, and phenomenology" to enable the creation of "a theoretical and methodological space for traditionally silenced and marginalized groups to critique social institutions that perpetuate inequality" (Pratt-Clarke, 2012, p. 84). Within the qualitative toolbox, snowball sampling provides one such way for researchers to study marginalized populations by harnessing the power of social networking and personal connections, which allows for the more thorough analysis of individuals and groups that may otherwise remain inaccessible. The purpose of this article is to contribute to the existing literature about the use of snowball sampling in qualitative research studies that seek to understand the experiences of marginalized groups. The article begins with a review of the history of snowball sampling followed by a discussion of snowball sampling as it pertains to qualitative research methods. Next, an example is provided of a particular womanist research study, conducted by one of the article authors, that employed snowball sampling techniques. Finally, the article concludes with critical reflections of the use of this sampling technique as a tool to access "hidden" and marginalized populations. The History of Snowball Sampling Traditionally, snowball sampling has been employed as a "solution to overcome problems of data sampling in the study of hidden populations" (as cited in Faugier & Sargeant, 1997, p. 792). This strategy has been used since 1958 (Coleman). But despite its role in qualitative research and its continued use, there has been a general lack of description of the work involved in snowball sampling--a lack that "led to the impression that all that was required to sample difficult-to-reach populations was to start the ball rolling with one contact, then sit back and watch the sample pile up" (Faugier & Sargeant, 1997, p. …

Factors Influencing Online Buying Behavior of College Students: A Qualitative Analysis

Abstract: The Indian retail industry has emerged as one of the most dynamic and fast-paced industries due to the entry of several new players. It accounts for over 10 per cent of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and around 8 per cent of the employment. India is the world's fifth-largest global destination in the retail space (IBEF, 2015). The Boston Consulting Group and Retailers Association of India published a report titled, Retail 2020: Retrospect, Reinvent, Rewrite, highlighting that India's retail market is expected to nearly double to US$ 1 trillion by 2020 from US$ 600 billion in 2015, driven by income growth, urbanisation and attitudinal shifts (IBEF, 2015). The Indian e-retail (excluding travel-related transactions) market is pegged at around US $3 billion at present, and is expected to grow to around US $22 billion in five years, according to a CLSA report (Mookerji, 2014). India's e-retail is expanding at a compounded annual growth rate of about 34 per cent, according to a report by Digital Commerce (Mookerji, 2014). With 75% of online audience between the age group of 15-34 years, India is one of the youngest online demographic globally (comScore, 2012). Out of this, 15-24 years of age group segment constitutes to 36% of online consumers (KPMG, 2014) and has been the fastest growing age segment online with user growth being contributed by both male and female segments (comScore, 2012). Increased Internet penetration, improved security measures, convenience of shopping in lives pressed for time, and, of course, dozens of retailers to choose from--these are a few factors that are attracting more and more consumers to shop online (Joshi & Upadhyay, 2014). Infact, mega etailing events like Flipkart's Big Billion Day and the three-day Great Online Shopping Festival (GOSF 2014), organised by Internet giant Google were termed a huge success with consumers flocking to sites, and exceeding companies' expectations (Fibre2fashion News Desk, 2015). Mumbai (also known as Bombay) the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra, was selected as the research location as it has more internet users than any other city in the country, according to data released by the Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI, 2013). The report added that the growth in the Internet users in metros like Mumbai is also driven by increasing access to the internet among students (Malhotra, 2013). Youth constitutes a considerable proportion of the online users with India's youth comprising a significantly larger share than the global internet users (KPMG, 2014). The youth (college going students) accounts for 29% of the active internet users (IAMAI, 2013). There are various factors which have been instrumental in bringing about this change with the major ones being the increase in mass media exposure and also the rising number of social networking apps targeting the youth (IAMAI, 2013). Also, internet as a medium has given power to the youth to do things which were not possible earlier like taking active part and generating support for social causes etc. And this is making it easier for the youth to share his/her voice with the world (IAMAI, 2013). In consideration with increase in the internet usage and online shopping among the college students, the purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the factors that influence the online buying behavior of the college students in Mumbai Literature Review The study of Online Buying Behavior has been one of the major research agendas in both Marketing Sciences and Information Systems with the rapidly growing e-business. Out of the many researches in the aforesaid related area, some of the pertinent literature related to this study is discussed here. An analysis of the trends on online shopping in India by Kiran et al. (2008), points out that there is a growing awareness of getting more information through websites. There is an increasing trend of using Internet for booking tickets, buying books and music but the scene has not transformed dramatically in case of India. …

Enhancing the Quality of the Findings of a Longitudinal Case Study: Reviewing Trustworthiness via ATLAS.ti

Abstract: Establishing trustworthiness, in regard to the concepts of validity and reliability is a crucial concern in ensuring the quality of a qualitative research. However, unlike a quantitative research, Firestone (1987) stated that qualitative study provides the reader with a depiction in enough detail to show that the author's conclusion "makes sense" (p. 19; as cited in Merriam, 1998). This is also echoed by Bailey (2007), "trustworthiness does not mean that the reader necessarily has to agree with the researcher; rather it requires the reader to see how the researcher arrived at the conclusion he or she made" (p. 181). Thus, Bailey (2007) further emphasized that the researcher interested in establishing trustworthiness should take care to provide a detailed methods section in their research write-ups. This paper therefore aims to provide a review on the quality in establishing trustworthiness in the stipulated research project study on continuing professional development (CPD) for Malaysian Japanese language teachers using e-portfolio. Specifically, the role of Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) in facilitating the complexity of data analysis process and establishing trustworthiness in the qualitative research study is examined in this paper. The Research Study and Issue of Trustworthiness The research study is an initiative of utilizing e-portfolio development as a mechanism of self-directed professional development among non-native speaking teachers of Japanese language. The two-tiered development of e-portfolios (individual and group-based) would signify the potential use of e-portfolio in the formation of a community of practice and the promotion of collaboration and networking among the teachers. Due to its descriptive and interpretive nature, this study employs a qualitative case study methodology. It adopts a longitudinal design which involves collection of data over time and at four specific points in time throughout the study period. Data collection comprises three email interviews at the first three phases of the study, a face-to-face interview at the middle point of the study and an online questionnaire at the end of the study period. For the purpose of collecting the data, this study entails a collective case study. On the other hand, case study often implies the collection of unstructured data and qualitative analysis of those data. Hence, it often raises a fundamental issue about the aspect of trustworthiness. For instance, it is argued that the aim of case study research should be to "capture cases in their uniqueness, rather than to use them as a basis for wider generalization or theoretical inference of some kind" (Hammersley & Gomm, 2000, p. 3). Additionally, Patton (1990) voiced his criticism about qualitative research for being too subjective in his statement as follows: "... has such negative connotations in the public mind that to openly advocate the value of subjective insight in evaluation research is to risk undermining the credibility of one's work" (p. 55). Furthermore, Sandelowski (1997, cited in Johnson & Waterfield, 2004) claimed that there was still a sense of distrust of qualitative research due to its perceived inability to produce useful and valid findings beyond a supplementary role to quantitative research. Keeping these points in mind, the researchers took the initiative to ensure the achievement of rigour in the study so that the qualitative case study method employed in this study is more than just subjective views of events. In a nutshell, this paper therefore sets out to consider how rigour or thoroughness in qualitative research study can be better addressed using CAQDAS, namely ATLAS.ti in this study. The researchers agree with Lincoln and Guba's (1985) perspective that addressing rigour in qualitative research amounts to being able to assess the trustworthiness of the processes and procedures of the research and hence adopt their trustworthiness framework in this study. …

Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis from a Realist Perspective

Abstract: In the article, we, practitioners and researchers in English for Academic Purposes (EAP), report how a study in our field used the qualitative methodology, interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009), from a realist perspective. The presentation is based on a PhD research project that one of us undertook, to investigate the acquisition of second language academic literacy skills by eight international doctoral students at a New Zealand university. English language has become the most commonly used language for academic communication. Researchers and university teachers have tried to support students using English as an additional language with programmes and materials focusing on academic literacies. In the middle of such trial and effort, the field of EAP emerged as a subfield of educational research (Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001). Since EAP was established, a considerable number of research studies have been carried out, such as those published in the Journal of English for Academic Purposes, or the Journal of Specific Purposes. Various methodological approaches have been introduced by these studies, and some of them are concerned with competences of doctoral students or students in the context of higher education. However, the issue encountered was that the realism that the study takes as the research paradigm hardly aligns with the majority of EAP ethnographic studies taking postmodernist approaches. The decision for using IPA was made after a long search for a methodology that suits the realist orientation as wells as the aim of the study. IPA is "concerned with the detailed examination of personal lived experience, the meaning of experience to participants and how participants make sense of that experience" (Smith, 2011, p. 9). It emerged in the mid-1990s in medical psychology, and continued to form its own theoretical orientations, and data collection analysis procedures (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). The founders of IPA indicate that the methodology challenges postmodern approaches to some extent (see Smith et al., 2009). It is also known for following realism in a broad way (Reid, Flowers, & Larkin, 2005). Nevertheless, as we will discuss in the following section, some principles of IPA diverge from the realist perspective that the study is based on, which made the use of the methodology cautious and selective. The next section describes the rationale behind the methodological decisions that were made. We then report the research procedures, with great detail for data analysis process in particular, to demonstrate how the realist perspective has realised in the IPA practice of the study. Finally, the evaluation of the study against the realist criteria is reported, and some implications of using IPA based on realism for educational research are discussed. Rational for Using IPA from a Realist Perspective Like qualitative educational research in general, qualitative EAP studies have been influenced by postmodern thinkers, such as Foucault (1972) or Lincoln and Guba (1985) (see Hyland, 2006; Usher, Bryant, & Johnston, 1997; Wilson, 1997). These EAP studies claim that research findings are not what the researcher actually finds out, but what the researcher and participants co-constructed (e.g., Jacoby & Ochs, 1995). They also argue that "reality" does not exist objectively, but is constructed as multiple subjective realities (Hyland, 2009). Their methodological procedures serve to co-construct findings with their participants. A postmodern study is evaluated against the extent to which the co-construction process was reflective and transparent. In addition, a number of EAP ethnographic studies undertake social, cultural approaches to students' learning or acquisition. They look at interactional or social processes of learning, or how interpersonally distributed knowledge or competence, such as of academic literacies is internalised into the individual mind (e. …

A Qualitative Research on Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety

Abstract: Research results show that foreign language anxiety constitutes a considerable problem in the foreign language learning process among learners. Thus, many studies focused on identification of anxiety, its causes and effects on learning process and the ways to allay anxiety (Aydin, 2008a). However, while research on foreign language anxiety among learners has considerably increased in the last decade, FLTA has remained a research area that has not attracted much attention. In other words, as Tum (2012) emphasizes, when compared to the number of studies on learning anxiety, research on FLTA remains too limited to draw conclusions on the issue. Furthermore, it can be pointed out that many studies appeared on the validity and reliability of foreign language anxiety scales, while no study focused on developing a tool to measure FLTA. FLTA was first discussed by Horwitz (1996) in terms of non-native teachers and student teachers' experiences. Horwitz (1996) points out that non-native teachers experience feelings of uneasiness and inadequacy in the target language, and that this anxiety has negative effects on language teaching. In other words, for Horwitz (1996), repeated and frequent feelings of inadequacy during their teaching experience can develop foreign language teaching anxiety. She maintains that that anxiety adversely affects their self-confidence, their use of target language and instructional choices. The crucial point is that Horwitz (1996) claims that teachers experience anxiety, as they are still language learners. However, it should be underlined that teaching and learning are different from each other contextually; thus, foreign language anxiety in the learning context may differ from anxiety in the teaching context. To be brief, as Merc (2011) emphasizes, FLTA is not clearly defined in the current literature; more importantly, foreign language anxiety has been mainly researched and discussed in a foreign language learning context, while the number of studies on FLTA has been fairly limited. Before presenting a review of the studies on FLTA, it is necessary to define anxiety and its types. Anxiety is defined as an emotional and affective state in which a person feels powerless and experiences tension (Blue, 1955) and classified into three types as trait, state and situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is an aspect of personality (Scovel, 1978), whereas state anxiety is experienced at a particular moment as a reaction to a definite situation (Spielberger, 1983). Last, situation-specific anxiety is related to specific situations and events (Horwitz et al., 1986). Foreign language anxiety is an apprehension experienced among foreign language learners who are not fully proficient during a specific situation which requires the use of foreign language (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993), and is classified into three varieties. First, communication apprehension is experienced when learners lack mature communication skills while they have mature thoughts and ideas (Aydin, 2008b), whereas test anxiety is the fear of failing in tests (Horwitz & Young, 1991). Finally, fear of negative evaluation is an apprehension which is based on incapability of making a proper social impression (Aydin, 2008b). As a final point, it should be strongly stated that the definitions given above are in the scope of foreign language learning anxiety, and that FLTA has not been defined in the current literature. Literature Review Studies mainly focused on the sources of FLTA and found several factors. In an earlier study, after analyzing the diary entries on the problems experienced by non-native teachers of English, Numrich (1996) concluded that teachers felt anxious due to the feeling of insufficiency in grammar teaching, time management and giving instructions for activities. In another study, Kim and Kim (2004) found that anxiety provoking situations consisted of the use of target language, unexpected questions, a low level of motivation and interest among learners, classroom management, a high level of learners' proficiency, mentor observations, listening activities and teaching cultural content. …

Qualitative Research for Social Workers or Social Work for Qualitative Researchers

Abstract: Deborah Padgett’s new edition of Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research significantly updates and expands her initial edition. This qualitative research text will be a welcomed addition to social work research courses. While becoming a more inclusive text with wide applicability for the research context today, the author only hints at some of the more contentious or evolving issues that continue to make the field of qualitative research challenging to traditional research approaches. Several places/issues of growth and evolution are suggested by this reviewer

Youths' Perspectives on the Reasons Underlying School Truancy and Opportunities to Improve School Attendance

Abstract: School truancy, defined as any intentional unauthorized or illegal absence from school, is a significant problem in the United States. Truancy contributes to the related problem of chronic absenteeism, which refers to students missing 10% or more of a given school year, including authorized and unauthorized absences (NCCP, 2008). A recent study estimated that nationally, 11% of adolescents between the age of 12 and 17 skipped class in the past 30 days (Vaughn et al., 2013). High absenteeism has garnered increased attention from a variety of stakeholders, including the California Attorney General who has defined reducing truancy, and thereby chronic absenteeism, as a priority (Harris, 2013).Previous research suggests that truancy is a complex phenomenon. Kearney's (2008a) interdisciplinary model of school absenteeism - based on a synthesis of research studies - describes six proximal and distal factors related to truancy and chronic absenteeism, including characteristics and circumstances related to the child, parents, family, peers, school, and community. Other studies have also identified associations between truancy and home environments, social relationships, school variables (e.g., student-to-teacher ratio, educational style, safety and disciplinary procedures) and individual characteristics such as students' level of engagement with learning (Freudenber & Reglis, 2007; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).Previous studies examining the determinants of school truancy have primarily utilized quantitative methods (Kearney, 2008b) and have therefore lacked an explicit focus on understanding youths' perspectives and lived experiences, for example, the combinations of factors that contribute to youths' decisions to skip class, youths' emotional reactions to truancy interventions, or how truancy patterns changed over time. What qualitative work has been conducted to date provides important perspectives on the central role of relationships with teachers, school climate, peer relationships, and school/community partnerships in promoting school attendance (Attwood & Croll; 2006; Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morrison, 2006; MacDonald & Marsh, 2004; Rodriguez & Conchas 2009; Ventura & Miller, 2005). Unfortunately, the majority of this work has been conducted in the context of a specific program evaluation or outside of the United States. Qualitative perspectives from underserved youth of color in the United States, who are at disproportionate risk of not graduating from high school, are particularly limited.A better understanding of youths' perspectives could help contribute to the development of effective truancy-reduction strategies. As shown in a recent systematic review, despite the decades of work to better understand the causes of school truancy, relatively little is known about how to effectively reduce it (Maynard et al., 2013). Unfortunately, many truancyreduction interventions have been designed without explicit input or feedback from the target population and few qualitative studies of truancy or related behaviors (e.g., drop out) have combined efforts to understand youths' experiences and elicit opportunities for system improvement (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morrison, 2006). A more in-depth understanding of youths' perspectives on system functioning and target areas for intervention could inform program and policy implementation.To help address these gaps in the literature, this project sought to explore the experiences and perspectives of youths with a history of school truancy in Los Angeles County (LAC). This work was guided by three research questions:1) what factors contribute to youths' decisions to skip classes or ditch full days of school over time?2) how do youths who skip or ditch perceive the school's and other's (e.g., family, legal system) response to truancy? and,3) what recommendations do youths have for reducing truancy?Since we strove to use youths' experiences and input to inform intervention strategy development, we focused our inquiry on what youths perceived as modifiable contributors and intervention points to address truancy. …

Fostering Transformative Learning in an Online ESL Professional Development Program for K-12 Teachers

Abstract: The proportion of higher education students taking one or more online courses in higher education is steadily increasing, now at 32.0% (Allen & Seaman, 2013). Despite the initial resistance to leaving the physical classroom behind, as of 2013, 69.1% of chief academic leaders in the U.S. indicate that online learning is now a critical part of their long-term institution strategies. Not surprisingly, given the investment in time and resources into transitions to the online format, positive perceptions by chief academic officers regarding effectiveness and quality of online learning has risen to 77.0% (Allen & Seaman, 2013). At the same time, institutions of higher education are also interested in maintaining their educational missions, including increasing students' understanding of the world through expanding their "habits of mind" (Cranton & King, 2003, p. 33). Faculty are often likewise interested in achieving similar effects, with the "ideals of transformation and social change and the importance of these constructs for the public" (Moore, 2005, p. 77) and community, indicating, explicitly and/or implicitly, interest in transformative learning and critical reflection (Mezirow, 2000; Taylor; 2007). Within teacher education programs, specifically, when moving courses online, the faculty and administrators are still responsible for and driven toward turning out high-quality, critically reflective teachers for the K-12 schools. These programs must overcome the challenges of teaching candidates how to teach as a leader and facilitator in a classroom without showing them how to do so physically in a face-to-face classroom. These goals are particularly salient in U.S. professional development programs for teachers of English language learners (ELs), given the intense focus on awareness and understanding of sociocultural issues (de Guerrero & Villamil, 2002; Gay, 2010; Guy, 1999), including political, social, economic, psychological, and physical influences on learning, teaching, and educational policy. American teachers often enter the classroom "culturally, racially, and ethnically incompetent" (Milner, Flowers, Moore, & Moore, 2003), while finding themselves tasked with the challenge of teaching an increasing number of ELs. The year 2000 showed only 14% of teachers with ELs in their classrooms had completed eight or more hours of EL training. To illustrate this point further, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2012) shows a 14.0% increase in the number of school districts across the U.S. offering services to ELs, and individual states are seeing much higher increases in their EL population. For example, in Pennsylvania, the increase in the number of ELs was 44.3%, from 2002 to 2011. Likewise, the number of students participating in these EL programs has increased 12.6% in the U.S., while Pennsylvania has seen an increase of 58.8% since 2002. It is estimated that by 2030, 40% of K-12 students in the U.S. will have varying levels of English language proficiency (Thomas & Collier, 2002). These escalating numbers have led to more enrollments in online professional development programs designed to fill the gaps in the teachers' knowledge and skills for working with ELs. The effectiveness of these programs, then, reveal themselves as significant. While sociocultural issues are addressed in much of the education literature, and are prominent topics in transformative learning (Tolliver & Tisdell, 2006; Taylor et al., 2009), the connections between educational goals, sociocultural awareness, and critical discussion is not clear in online spaces. Face-to-face settings allow for "interaction, dialogue, and reflection" (Boyer, Maher, & Kirkman, 2006, p. 336) on sensitive topics that challenge underlying assumptions about beliefs and values, key components to the transformative process (Mezirow, 2000). Clarity is needed to determine the ways in which adult learners engage with one another in the online world. …

Performing a Thematic Analysis: An Exploratory Study about Managers’ Perceptions on Gender Equality

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present results from an exploratory study that aims to investigate why gender role alterations in leadership positions is slow. The tourism managers’ perceptions of gender equality, within the workplace, were obtained resorting to focus groups. We chose thematic analysis to identify themes and patterns. This thematic analysis enables a methodological systematization of data. Data were coded using webQDA, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software that speeds up the team process of analysis. The systematization of information helped overcome the difficulties to synthesize the various interpretations; thus it was possible to generate more ideas and reduce researcher bias. The main outcome of the study was the development of an analytic framework where diverse components fit together by combining and cataloguing six main themes and their sub-themes. This framework is not only an analysis tool but also provides support to develop robust quantitative instruments and facilitate future meta-inference drawn from all data sources of a research project. We defend that mixed methods research is useful for finding credible answers to research questions on complex social phenomena. Discussion about qualitative vs quantitative dichotomy is sometimes irrelevant, because what matters is maximizing the process of research. Exploring the practicalities of using a qualitative methodology as a team of researchers, we contribute to theory development on human resources capitalization.

Anonymity as a Double-Edge Sword: Reflecting on the Implications of Online Qualitative Research in Studying Sensitive Topics

Abstract: Given the pervasiveness of Internet usage in Canadian homes (1), more and more researchers have opted to utilize online methods for conducting qualitative research. After initially gaining popularity through marketing research in the 1990's, online qualitative focus groups and interviews have been increasingly utilized in health, social and psychological studies (Williams, Clausen, Robertson, Peacock, & McPherson, 2012). While numerous authors have opted to use online methods in order to "keep pace with advances in communication technology" (Fox, Morris, & Rumsey, 2007, p. 539), there still exists a paucity of research that reflects on the use of online methods as a distinct methodological practice, rather than as a reproduction of traditional techniques using the Internet. In contrast to more traditional offline qualitative research, online research has the potential for participants to share their experiences in an anonymous space. This perceived anonymity has demonstrated benefits and limitations to the data collection process as well as participants' overall experiences with being involved in the research. It is the purpose of this discussion to introduce this double-edged sword that results from participant anonymity within online qualitative research, drawing from examples from my own proposed dissertation research, as well as from examples from current research that have utilized online qualitative methods. It is the hope that other novice online researchers can use the reflections found in this paper as a useful starting point in beginning their own online qualitative inquiries, by considering particularly, the implications of anonymity on the research process. Background on my Proposed Dissertation Research In preparing my dissertation proposal, I focused much of my writing on elucidating my decision- making for using online qualitative research. My justification for choosing these methods stemmed from my proposed subject of inquiry: victimization within adolescent friendships. In this study, I hope to understand how victimization manifests within adolescent friendships and how these victimized young people are impacted by and respond to this victimization. While much is known about the processes and potential impacts of the varying forms of victimization on young people's development, there has been little consideration of the ways that specific relational contexts, such as friendships, may impact the experiences of victimization. There is limited recognition within current childhood bullying research of the distinction between victimization within friendships and victimization perpetrated by non-friends. Preliminary research on friendship victimization does indicate that the outcomes of friendship victimization may be similar to victimization from non- friends, however, these reports also indicate that children and youth may perceive that the benefits of the friendship outweigh the consequences of the victimization and may therefore continue in these relationships despite their suffering (Daniels, Quigley, Mernard, & Spence, 2010; Mishna, Wiener, & Pepler, 2008). While there is a small emerging discourse that recognizes the complexities of children's friendships and the coexistence of both friendship and victimization within a relationship, there is more that requires examination. First, there is still a limited understanding of the impact of victimized children's perceptions of friendships (including quality and satisfaction) on experiences with victimization within friendships. Equally, there is little known about how friendship victimization can impact perceptions of friendship. There have been recommendations within the literature to consider the potentially enduring consequences of victimization within friendships, with a particular emphasis in how friendship victimization may change over time (Crick & Nelson, 2002; Wei & Jonson-Reid, 2011). There is also a dearth of knowledge on how children and youth's social contexts and interactions (i. …

But is it research?: A Review of Patricia Leavy’s Method Meets Art: Arts-Based Research Practice

Abstract: Patricia Leavy’s new book helps to address the gap for an introductory text for those interested in learning more about arts-based research and other approaches to artistic qualitative research. It may also help to address those researchers and editors who, when seeing an arts-based research report or presentation, ask \"but

A Descriptive Content Analysis of the Extent of Bloom's Taxonomy in the Reading Comprehension Questions of the Course Book Q: Skills for Success 4 Reading and Writing

Abstract: Cognition is the scientific concept meaning the mental processes contained in obtaining knowledge and understanding, covering thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem solving, while meta-cognition is the knowledge and comprehension of our own mental actions and capabilities and those of others, as well as organization of these actions (Special Education Support Service, 2009). The taxonomy concept is mainly employed in the realm of biology when it comes to the categorization of beings; however it is used in many other areas as a means of separating terms into groups and hierarchies of opinions. In 1948, Benjamin Bloom coordinated and directed a number of educators who, over a course of eight years, categorized educational objectives that were finally called Bloom's Taxonomy. Reorganized in 2003, Bloom's Taxonomy is grouped into three areas of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain is grouped under six subsequent levels of thinking. The initial three levels or lower order skills contain: remembering, understanding, and applying, while the last three levels or higher-order skills cover: analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Orey, 2010). In other words, the first three down levels are knowledge, comprehension and application, while the three up levels are analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Taxonomy is hierarchical; each step is located at the upper steps as well, which means high levels cover the levels at down. To give an example, a student being in the application level is able to function in both knowledge and comprehension levels as well. Eliciting meaning from reading passage necessitates a group of skills that go far beyond the ability to decipher or word perception (Konza, 2011). With all these in mind, this study aims at identifying to what extent the reading sections of EFL course book "Q: Skills for Success 4 Reading and Writing" by Oxford Publishing refers to the levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. To achieve this, each reading section was analysed carefully in order to have a broad view on which steps of taxonomy, either upper or down, were employed in the reading sections of the mentioned course book. Question stems focusing on each level and key words exemplifying the steps of the taxonomy were used to come to a conclusion on which levels of thinking order were available in the overall analysed reading sections. Furthermore, this study will bring a light on the scope of reading questions having the characteristics of lower and higher level thinking orders involved, and as a result the study will be a guide for the EFL course books being written or will be written in terms of covering Bloom's Taxonomy. Many EFL course books have been written through diverse learning theories with different principals regarding the mental processes. However, few EFL course books consider such mental processes, particularly the EFL course books employed in local scope and written by nonnative authors. Besides, one of these mental processes, the Bloom's Taxonomy, is not involved extensively in the formation of both local and global scope EFL course books, in our case this study refers to this gap by hinting on this course book which serves solely for the lower levels thinking orders. It will supply the informational needs of stakeholders serving both in local and global extent. To sum up, this research addresses a significant problem which is the lack of cognitive processes in the reading sections of the written EFL course books in both local and global scopes. Literature Review Efficient readers comprehend the aim of their reading, and so are able to form their reading style consequently. They know the reason of reading as well as how they ought to read to reach their aim. When they are in need of a particular telephone number, they know employing alphabetic and scanning skills to find out the name and number soon; if they want to know if a book fits to their requirements, they can skim content parts, chapter titles and a paragraph to make their selection; if they require to upload new software or make a complex recipe, they can pursue guidance thoroughly and gradually; if they need to synthesise data from a number of supplies, they can read analytically, elicit basic data and decipher what it conveys on the ground of their owned knowledge. …

Qualitative Health Research Involving Indigenous Peoples: Culturally Appropriate Data Collection Methods

Abstract: Historically, health research involving Indigenous peoples has been fraught with problems, including researchers not addressing Indigenous research priorities and then subsequently often failing to utilize culturally appropriate methods (Schnarch, 2004). Given this historical precedence, some Indigenous populations may be reluctant to participate in research projects (Assembly of First Nations, 2009). Internationally, to address these important cultural, ethical and methodological issues, several countries have recognized the imperative of having guidelines for the safe and ethical conduct of research with Indigenous peoples. For example, Australia's Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Research (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2003), and New Zealand's Guidelines for Researches on Health Research Involving Maori (Health Research Council of New Zealand, 2010). Canada's Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS2): Research Involving the First Nations, Inuit and Metis Peoples of Canada (Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, & Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, 2014), similarly provides contextually relevant guidelines for research involving Canadian Indigenous peoples. In this guideline, requirements for research collaborations with the Indigenous community, including the use of culturally appropriate data collection methods are described.Qualitative methodology is increasingly used by applied health researchers to give voice to vulnerable populations (Miller, 2010) using interviews and focus groups to collect data; however, these methods may not be the most culturally appropriate methods for use with Indigenous people (Smith, 1999). Studies have attempted to use culturally appropriate data collection methods with Indigenous populations, however, to the author's knowledge, no paper has provided a critique of the rigor and cultural appropriateness of these methods. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to describe, critique and synthesize the literature using data collection methods, other than interviews and focus groups, with Indigenous people in Canada. The literature was assessed for quality using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) qualitative checklist (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, 2013) and for cultural appropriateness using the standards outlined in the TCPS2 (Canadian Institutes of Health Research et al., 2014). The results of this review will act as an important resource for researchers to facilitate the selection of culturally appropriate methods for use in research, and to enable respectful and collaborative research partnerships with Indigenous people in Canada.Literature ReviewIndigenous peoples currently represent approximately 4.3 percent of the Canadian population, and include First Nations, Inuit and Metis (Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 2004; Statistics Canada, 2013). The term Indigenous is used in this paper only when the differentiation among groups cannot be made. The term Indigenous community refers to an Indigenous territory, organization or community with whom a researcher is conducting research, while recognizing that such a community is not always located in one geographical area (Canadian Institutes of Health Research et al., 2014; Evans et al., 2012).The colonization of North America by Europeans led to devastating effects for Indigenous people as a result of forced relocation, and an end to self- government, traditional lifestyles, cultures, and ceremonies (The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2012). The damaging effects of colonization continue today, as Indigenous Canadians have poorer health outcomes than non-Indigenous Canadians, including high rates of diabetes, arthritis, infectious diseases, suicide, and higher mortality rates (Reading & Wien, 2009; Reading & Halseth, 2013; Smylie, Fell, Ohlsson, & Joint Working Group on First Nations, Indian, Inuit, 2010). …

Rediscovering Husserl: Perspectives on the Epoché and the Reductions

Abstract: This paper is motivated by the sense that transcendental phenomenology offers a depth of possibilities for describing lived experiences (Reeder, 2010). When I began the practice of research, I was confronted with the challenges of understanding the intricacies of what unique individuals reported to me about their perceptions. I became drawn towards transcendental phenomenology as a means to understand those perceptions, because the differences in how people construct meaning is so attractive to me. My practical challenge was to let the experience of the participant stand as he or she intended it to be understood, but my tendency was to filter their experiences through my own eyes, through my own experiences. As an aid to hearing the voice of my participants, phenomenology, as explained in the various writings of its founder, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), became the perfect method within which I could begin to understand how the perceptions of others helped them to understand their world.Phenomenology provides a means to observe individual and personal epistemological realities as they arise from their unique perceptions (Pietersma, 2006). The opportunity to understand the subjective perceptions of participants is in itself a compelling draw to phenomenology as a method, yet the orientation seems difficult to fully grasp, particularly in understanding the evolution of Husserl's thinking. Reeder, (2010), as an example of this difficulty, explains that Husserl's writings "need to be read and reread" so that we become aware of how Husserl's "later explorations of consciousness correct and amplify earlier ones" (p. 158). It is not uncommon, even as it was in my past experience as a doctoral student, to be exposed only to a cursory look at phenomenology and its various constructs. This established for me a need to engage in a personal exploration of Husserl's writing so that I could begin to understand some of the many complexities which exist in the method. The orientation I received as a student exposed the difficulties inherent to the method on an intellectual level, but those challenges became real only after beginning to implement the method. A particular difficulty exists in the task of intentionally engaging with what Husserl called the "epoche" (Sousa, 2014, p. 31), and the associated processes of "reduction" and "bracketing" (Chan, Yuen-ling, & Wai-tong, 2013, p. 1). The terms are used so frequently and with so much seeming familiarity that my initial tendency was to falsely embrace an external, superficial examination of the context and meaning within phenomenology. It was only after reading through Husserl's writings that I realized the extraordinary personal investment Husserl asks of the aspiring phenomenologist (Husserl, 1982).What I intend in this paper is to provide a perspective, acknowledging that there are many such perspectives, with which to understand the epoche and associated concepts in research as they exist in Husserl's transcendental phenomenology. Additionally, the sense that the epoche and the reductions occur on multiple planes simultaneously is an inherent conclusion. As I write above, the aspiring phenomenologist must make an intentional personal investment in the process of phenomenology, in actually doing something within the phenomenological method, but what is often overlooked is the transformational effect doing phenomenology ultimately has on the researcher (see Jacobs, 2013).What I do not attempt to do is to provide a philosophical examination of these terms. Others are far better suited to that task, and I leave it to them happily. This paper is therefore centered on discussing the epoche and the reductions as a fundamental part of transcendental phenomenological researcher.In the phenomenological sense epoche indicates, as Taminiaux (2004) suggests, a suspension of what "blocks the way to the phenomena" (p. 9). In practice this requires an intentional disruption of one's tendency to overlay personal assumptions on interpretations of the experiences and perceptions of others. …

Are STEM Syllabi Gendered? A Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis

Abstract: Both individual and institutional discrimination still exist in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) higher education, but embedded inequalities have largely replaced more visible forms of discrimination (Monroe, Ozyurt, Wrigley, & Alexander, 2008). Research suggests that the marginalization of female students and faculty persists in STEM education because of institutional factors (Cantu, 2012; Griffith, 2010; Linley & George-Jackson, 2013; Mayberry & Rose, 1999); discrimination is institutionalized through texts, policies, practices, and unwritten norms (Acker, 1990). Institutional texts, such as the syllabus, coordinate the day-to-day work of those within the institution and serve as a link between the local and ruling relations (Campbell & Gregor, 2004). The syllabus reflects the institutional values and discourses of STEM academics as a document created to inform and guide students as they pursue a STEM education; as such, a critical discourse analysis of the language used in the document to coordinate student work can reveal entrenched inequalities in STEM education (Biber, 2006a). This study explored the gendered nature of STEM in higher education through a feminist critical discourse analysis of STEM course syllabi. Through this discourse analysis, I sought to understand if and how STEM syllabi are gendered; the analysis and findings informs and extends understanding of the STEM syllabus and STEM education. Calls for research to understand the existing social and scientific systems that marginalize women in STEM fields at the institutional level have increased in the recent years (Cantu, 2012; Griffith, 2010; Linley & George-Jackson, 2013; Mayberry & Rose, 1999). This study responds to those calls for research by exploring the STEM syllabus. By understanding if and how the syllabus is gendered through a feminist critical discourse analysis, this study extends understanding of how STEM higher education marginalizes women and has the potential to make recommendations to ameliorate those factors both through changes to the syllabus as well as to the institutional culture that perpetuates it. To inform my analysis of the genre of the syllabus, I began by exploring the linguistic features of the syllabi. Specifically, I explored how linguistic features like stance and interdiscursivity were used in the corpus of syllabi explored; how is power reflected in the syllabus through the use of pronouns, and what linguistic tools and discourses are used to perpetuate the gendered nature of the STEM classroom. Conceptual Framework This study was framed through the lens of poststructuralist feminist thought to provide a lens through which I explored how power is gendered (Hesse-Biber, 2014). Poststructuralism "rejects objectivity and the notions of an absolute truth and single reality," and "knowledge is complicated, contradictory, and contingent to a certain social context and historical context" (Hesse-Biber, 2014, p. 44). For poststructural feminists, emphasis is placed on language and discourse, "regarded as constitutive of experience and not simply representative of it" (Hesse-Biber, 2014, p. 44). As such, discourse analysis is a key tool of poststructuralist researchers because the link between power and knowledge can be seen by exploring language-in-use (Hesse-Biber, 2014; Lazar, 2005). Analysis of texts looks for practical ideologies to uncover what is framed as logical ways of thinking that, in reality, perpetuate inequality (Hesse-Biber, 2014). Since patriarchal gender ideology is structural, it is enacted in institutions and reflected in institutional texts, therefore, "The task of feminist CDA is to examine how power and dominance are discursively produced and/or resisted in a variety of ways through textual representations of gendered social practices" (Lazar, 2005, p. 10). Through a framework of poststructuralist feminist thought, this discourse analysis uncovers the ways that gendered practices that favor men are represented and replicated in the syllabus. …

Encouraging Reflective Practices in Doctoral Students through Research Journals

Abstract: Qualitative research calls for a high degree of reflexivity (Glesne, 2006; Lichtman, 2010; Maxwell, 2013; Ortlipp, 2008). As the instruments, qualitative researchers need to critically examine their roles in the research process and how their biases and decisions may affect their data. Throughout the research process, researchers need to question their decisions. This ranges from the beginning of the study to sharing the results (Glesne, 2006). Schwandt (2007) describes reflexivity as a way for:... critically inspecting the entire research process including reflecting on the ways in which the fieldworker establishes a social network of informants and participants in a study; and for examining one's personal and theoretical commitments to see how they serve as resources for generating particular data, for behaving in particular ways vis-a-vis respondents and participants, and for developing particular interpretations. (p. 260)This continual critical process of self-evaluation allows researchers to consider the influence their positionality plays in their research. A researcher's positionality influences a study's setting, the participants, the data collected, and how data are interpreted. Researchers consider their prior experiences and assumptions and how they may influence their research (Berger, 2015; Lichtman, 2010). For example, elementary teachers may be more willing to discuss their experiences with a researcher who is a former elementary teacher, making access easier. Prior experiences may also affect the interpretive lens the researcher takes to the data (Berger, 2015). A researcher with their own experiences related to their research topic might interpret data differently than a researcher with no personal connection to the topic.Reflexivity serves as a means to enhance several areas of research studies, including data collection, analysis, and ethics and may help researchers be aware of their biases in their studies (Berger, 2015; Lichtman, 2010). By monitoring their responses to participants, and considering how their research results are presented, researchers can both identify and clarify any possible ramifications of their values, beliefs, or biases. Researchers can use reflexivity to enhance their data collection, by reflecting on certain interview questions that they may either avoid or emphasize, for example. Being aware of their own responses to the data they collect, as they collect it, assists researchers in determining how much their reaction to the data may influence their analysis and interpretation. Engaging in reflexive practices may allow researchers to become aware of their biases and consider if and how they are affecting the way results are presented (Berger, 2015). For example, a researcher writing about workplace bullying may prioritize the victims' experiences over the aggressors' if he or she has been a victim of workplace bullying.Reflexivity also allows researchers to consider the ethics of their work. When the researcher seeks to treat participants fairly and with compassion power issues can be more adequately addressed than if these relationships and stances are not considered (Pillow, 2003). This may also be a way to decrease "Othering," by working with participants as equals rather than positioning oneself as the research in a position of power. Reflecting on the ethics of research relationships may also encourage researchers to consider that while they may conduct the analysis and decide what to include in a final research report, they should note any potential effects this may have on or for their participants (Berger, 2015; Frisina, 2006).Reflexive JournalsReflexive journals serve as a way for researchers to document the methodological decisions they make throughout their studies, track their analysis process, consider their own emotions and the roles they play in the process, document insights, and consider researcher bias (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). …

Studying medicine with dyslexia: a collaborative autoethnography

Abstract: The topic of this article is the experience of the impact of dyslexia on medical studies, explored using a collaborative autoethnographic methodological approach. The study was prompted by an initial and ongoing full search of the literature, which revealed an absence of autoethnographic research into the experiences of medical students with dyslexia. It has four aims: to provide an in-depth, multi-layered account of the impact of dyslexia on a UK undergraduate medical student; to help other students and academic support staff in similar situations; to outline improvements that could be made to medical and other educational curricula and examination procedures, globally; finally, to call for further qualitative research to test out, possibly enhance, and qualify the cultural transferability of our study.

Reflexively Conducting Research with Ethnically Diverse Children with Disabilities

Abstract: The Rights of Children with Disabilities in Research The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) is a human rights treaty promoting and protecting equitable rights, freedoms, and respect of those with disabilities. Recognizing those with disabilities often face barriers to mainstream societal participation, the Convention aims to ensure they have opportunities to engage, enjoy, and live to their fullest potential, with societal rights and freedoms respected as any other person. This includes a right to freely share personal understandings and opinions on issues important to their lives. Article 7 of the Convention emphasizes "children with disabilities have the right to express their views freely on all matters affecting them ... and to be provided with disability and age-appropriate assistance to realize that right" (United Nations, 2006, #3). While children with disabilities have a right to express views, this right neither guarantees they will be asked to share these views (e.g., due perhaps to assumptions regarding the child's communication abilities, or individuals may lack clarity and confidence approaching and engaging the child, etc.) nor does it guarantee they will be heard. In supporting the Convention's position toward young people with disabilities, I continuously seek ways as a researcher to break down barriers within research processes for involving children with disabilities, providing them opportunities to both speak and be heard on matters affecting their lives. As I invite children with disabilities to serve as participants, rendering possibilities for them to exercise their right in sharing personal understandings within research, I also appreciate the importance of establishing ethical safe-guards. The 2013 International Charter for Ethical Research Involving Children (ICERIC) is a set of seven commitments addressing researchers' obligations to uphold the rights, dignity, and well-being of all child participants, in all circumstances, while embarking upon ethical quality research (Graham, Powell, Taylor, Anderson, & Fitzgerald, 2013). In doing so the ICERIC highlights the rights of child research participants and specifically draws attention to the roles and responsibilities of commissioners and researchers. For instance, the Charter advocates challenging discriminatory barriers for research participation and providing equitable opportunity for the involvement of all children (Graham et al., 2013). Another commitment focuses on reflexive processes, suggesting: Ethical research demands that researchers continually reflect on their practice, well beyond any formal ethical review requirements. This requires ongoing attention to the assumptions, values, beliefs and practices that influence the research process and impact on children. (Graham et al., p. 1) According to the ICERIC it is imperative researchers engage in reflective inquiry and meaning-making throughout their engagement with children. This reflexivity becomes even more critical when engaging children with disabilities, due to complexities in accessing voice (Ajodhia-Andrews, 2016). Reflexivity presents space for researchers to contemplate appropriate methods and mediums in accessing voices of children with disabilities, space to consider and reconsider techniques better suiting the children involved within the research. Steady reflexivity supports managing of ethical issues that arise when researching with children with disabilities (e.g., ethical precautions, ongoing consent, participant voice and power, member-checking of data, disclosure of the research process, etc., Ajodhia-Andrews, 2016). Children from traditionally marginalized groups, including those from diverse ethnic backgrounds and those with disabilities, maintain personal understandings about their lives, identities, and experiences. Yet, their voices and views often remain silent in school systems and research processes (Ajodhia-Andrews, 2016; Brown & Gilligan, 1991; Connors & Stalker, 2007; Engel, 2005; Wickenden, 2011). …

Instructional Motivations: What Can We Learn from Homeschooling Families?

Abstract: Public school teachers are often provided an array of ideas and methods through preservice training, in-service training, professional conferences, and personal study. However, they often feel restricted by what they are actually able to implement in the classroom (Gatto, 2009; Olivant, 2015; Rose, 2015). For example, a district may adopt a certain curriculum program that teachers must abide by, restricting their own educational motivations (Olivant, 2015). Given the opportunity, teachers might have different classroom arrangements, choose different methodologies, and follow a different curriculum guide. One of the benefits of homeschooling is that parents have the freedom to choose the curriculum and the instructional design for their academic programs. This reality may mean that homeschooling practices more closely align with new instructional ideas and methods. For example, pedagogical elements such as situated practice (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000), critical framing (New London Group, 1996), community of practice (Lave & Wegner, 1991), and transformed practice (Lohrey, 1995) are embraced by homeschoolers (Murphy, 2012; Ray, 2009; Sheehan, 2002).Unlike public school teachers who are often limited by certain factors such as end of course examinations, homeschooling parents can educate their children with their own personal motivations. For example, a public school teacher may be asked to follow a certain curriculum program because it corresponds to the concepts that will be expected to appear on the state's standardized test. In contrast, homeschooling parents may cover a similar unit as their public school counterparts, but choose the educational design based on a number of different possible motivations-their own preferences for how the unit should proceed, a suggestion from a curriculum package, an educational theorist, empirical research, a child's unique learning style, or a child's interests, among other factors (Hannah, 2012; Lips & Feinberg, 2008; Ray, 2005).Whereas a public school teacher's educational motivation may be overshadowed by a mandatory educational regimen (Rose, 2015), a parent has the freedom to draw from a number of resources (Hill, 2000). In addition, the practices of a public school teacher may remain constant since they are derived from a standardized curriculum guide, but a parent's motivation can change from unit to unit, thus providing a natural rhythm to the educational experience which is based on a student's understanding and progress. Because of this flexibility and freedom in teaching (Cai, Reeve, & Robinson, 2002), parents have the choice to utilize the latest teaching strategies that are being endorsed by educational theorists.What is unfortunate is that public schools often do not have the flexibility to implement these new types of methodologies. In a paper titled Life as Education and the Irony of School Reform, Kunzman (2012) expressed that our efforts to reform education are not working. Kunzman (2012) stated,The irony is that the most vocal school reformers today, the ones who rail so passionately against the status quo, are ultimately seeking to replace it with another singularly prescriptive vision of schooling, one driven by a testing regimen that narrows the learning experience even further. (p. 128)Although there are a number of great ideas about educational strategies coming from educational researchers and theorists, the ideas and strategies are inserted into an educational framework that may not be compatible with their utilization. In other words, these effective methodologies are not getting a fair evaluation due to factors such as the district's adoption of a particular learning model, or an emphasis on preparing for standardized testing (Grinell & Rabin, 2013).Can something be learned from homeschooling practices, especially in terms of curriculum and instruction motivation? Learning from others who have an alternative perspective has often proved to be successful in moving forward and making progress (Jennings, 2011). …

How to Enhance Qualitative Research Appraisal: Development of the Methodological Congruence Instrument

Abstract: Researchers generally think of the research process as falling into three major phases: designing a study, conducting a study, and reporting on the study results. Within any of these three phases, it is likely that some form of appraisal of the research will take place. Following the design of a study, a dissertation committee, funding agency, or Institutional Review Board may conduct manuscript appraisal. In these cases, the appraisal has the purpose of determining one or more of the following: that the researcher has the knowledge to conduct the research, has outlined steps to ensure the research is ethical, and/or is conducting a study that aligns with a particular funding priority. Appraisal may also occur by advisors or reviewers to confirm that the audit trail supports the research findings. The most common form of research appraisal, however, occurs in the form of peer review by editorial boards and journal reviewers. While research appraisal may receive far less attention in the literature than designing, conducting, or reporting research, it is critically important to the dissemination of trustworthy findings that uphold methodological rigor.A variety of high quality instruments exist that support and guide the appraisal process in qualitative inquiry (Cooper, 2011). However, in our review of the literature related to qualitative research appraisal, we did not locate an instrument or rubric that offers detailed guidance on assessing methodological congruence for the five major qualitative research traditions-ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, narrative inquiry, and case study research. In this article, we describe our context as authors and the circumstances that led to the development of the appraisal instrument presented below, which we call the Methodological Congruence Instrument (MCI; see appendix). For the purposes of this article, methodological congruence is defined as a "fit" between research purpose, research question, methodology, data sources and types, and data analysis (Creswell, 2013). To provide some context for the elements and content of the MCI, we briefly review some of the characteristics of major qualitative research traditions and methodologies. In addition, we offer some discussion of how this appraisal instrument might be utilized by a variety of stakeholders, including editorial board members, teachers, students, and the researchers themselves.Context and BackgroundThe authors of this paper are qualitative researchers who came together to work on this project within the context of a course on appraising qualitative research offered in Nova Southeastern University's Qualitative Research Graduate Certificate Program (QRGP). The authors include students in the course (Alice, Annette, Bruce, and Cynthia), as well as the course instructor (Robin) and the course Teaching Assistant (Doles). The students are all experienced educators and researchers who enrolled in the QRGP to strengthen their qualitative research knowledge and skills. During the course, as the class discussed how to assess quality in qualitative research reports, one of the traits we identified as indicative of quality was that of congruence-consistency between tradition/model and procedures, as well as between tradition/model and reporting conventions.Annette raised the idea of developing a table to help track the characteristics associated with various methodologies, as a tool to support the appraisal process, and she drafted an initial version. She shared her idea with the class and invited anyone interested to join with her in developing this instrument further. Following the conclusion of the course, the authors of this paper worked together to do just that, and we share the product below (appendix). It was never our intent to create a standardized instrument that would dictate issues of congruence. The intent of the MCI is to assist novice researchers in their learning process, serve as a platform for discussion among mentors and students, and get people thinking about ethics and rigor in methodological congruence. …

Transforming Educational Leadership Preparation: Starting with Ourselves

Abstract: Over the past 20 years, the demographic makeup of pre-kindergarten to grade twelve (PK-12) schools across the nation has dramatically changed and continues to do so. While we have witnessed these changes over time, the vast majority of principal preparation programs have remained constant (Baker-Martinez, 2012; Hawley & James, 2010; Hoff, Yoder, & Hoff, 2006; Merchant & Shoho, 2006). Lacking diversity and social justice awareness, knowledge, and skills (Cambron-McCabe & McCarthy, 2005; Hawley & James, 2010), many have yet to respond to the call for action to transform their leadership preparation. Leaders working in these increasingly diverse schools encounter a myriad of situations daily that deprive certain groups of students access to educational opportunities due to their racial, ethnic, and economic backgrounds. A number of scholars (Brown, 2004; Guerra, Nelson, Jacobs, & Yamamura, 2013; Hawley & James, 2010; McKenzie, Skrla, & Scheurich, 2006) have recommended that leadership preparation programs incorporate a social justice perspective into the course curriculum that advances a deeper understanding of how to work with students, families, and communities who are experiencing injustices as a result of race, ethnicity, poverty, and other areas of difference. Others (Furman, 2012; Hackman, 2006; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2010) have maintained that future education professionals should be required to examine their own positions, especially within the context of their own values and beliefs that dictate, to a great extent, their day-to-day decision-making and responsibilities. In light of the current status of leadership preparation at the university level and the increasing diversity and equity gaps occurring between certain racial and ethnic groups within our PK-12 schools, we maintain that we, as faculty within these preparation programs, must possess the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary to address the challenges inherent in leading socially just educational programs. Like our students, we make decisions that are largely influenced by our personal life history and life attachments that give birth to a combined consideration of one's personal values, beliefs, and conceptions of what should or could have been and what should be, both in the present as well as the future. Moreover, if we have not examined our own assumptions, beliefs, and biases about race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, class, dis/ability and other forms of diversity, how can we in turn effectively prepare aspiring leaders to lead for social justice? The authors of this paper, Barbara, an assistant professor and Patricia, an associate professor, hold positions within educational leadership preparation programs, located at two separate universities in the southwest U.S. Both are committed to infusing an equity-oriented, social justice leadership perspective into their teaching, curriculum and courses. We chronicled our life histories as a process for analyzing how we have become who we are (Guajardo, 2007), a critical journey we believe must first occur before we can attempt to ameliorate the negative effects caused by our inappropriate actions or reactions to racial and ethnic injustices and poverty. This paper provides a narrative to serve as a catalyst for engaging others who have similar interests toward creating and/or improving preparation programs designed to develop leaders who can lead for social justice. Literature Review As higher education faculty, Cambron-McCabe and McCarthy (2005) assert we must model the type of leadership within our own organizations that we expect our graduates to create. They charge us to reflect on the curriculum content of our leadership programs and the ways in which we teach to ascertain whether our own efforts and actions are representative of the types of social justice behaviors we advance as essential for future practicing administrators to embrace. …

Conceptual Understanding: A Concept Analysis

Abstract: Nursing curricula has been moving away from a content focus to a more conceptual foundation. Teaching students to understand concepts as opposed to memorizing content is necessary in the current health care environment. Rapid advances in medical knowledge and technology have demonstrated that it is impossible to teach students everything they will need to know to practice nursing (Dalley, Candela, Benzel-Lindley, 2008; Giddens, 2007; Giddens & Brady, 2007; Hardin & Richardson, 2012; Ironside, 2004, 2005). Therefore, it is necessary that we equip students with the tools for conceptual understanding. Many nursing students will tell you they are not good at mathematics. However, it is extremely important that nurses are able to correctly perform and determine the accuracy of medication calculations. I was a nurse who thought that I would never excel in mathematics. However, as a novice teacher I was asked to teach a medication calculation course. This course was different from the one I had in my own undergraduate education. Rather than memorizing a formula, as I had been taught, students were encouraged to solve medication calculations in any way that made sense to them. A fire was ignited as mathematics suddenly made sense to me and I was able to problem solve through most calculations. Conceptual understanding was a term mentioned regularly in preparing to teach medication calculations to undergraduate nursing students. The term was cited in nursing literature (Kelly & Colby, 2003; Wright, 2007) related to teaching medication calculations however, no definition or description of what it meant to have conceptual understanding or to teach for conceptual understanding was evident. The intention of this concept analysis was to begin to uncover what it means to have conceptual understanding. The foundation of this concept analysis was utilized in building a grounded theory of conceptual understanding in nursing students learning medication calculations (Mills, 2012). The application of the process of conceptual understanding goes beyond one topic in a curriculum and has potential for influencing many areas of education. Dimensional Analysis as a Qualitative Inquiry There are various methods available for concept analysis. Walker and Avant (2005) described a procedure for concept analysis that included identifying antecedents, defining empirical referents, and distinguishing cases such as model and invented cases. This procedure was not consistent with an abstract concept such as conceptual understanding. The method of dimensional analysis (Caron & Bowers, 2000) seemed more consistent with the investigator's belief that constructivist pedagogy is best when teaching for conceptual understanding. The foundation of dimensional analysis in pragmatism and symbolic interaction was congruent with constructivism. Discovery of the social construction of the concept further allowed the investigator to examine conceptual understanding through other's contexts and perspectives. Dimensional analysis was developed by Schatzman (1991) as "a methodological approach to the grounding of theory in qualitative research" (p. 303). For these reasons a qualitative approach to a concept analysis of conceptual understanding was deemed appropriate. Data Sources In dimensional analysis the definition of a term can vary depending upon the contexts and perspectives in which it is used. Caron and Bowers (2000) stated "The outcome of dimensional analysis is intended to provide a better understanding of systematically generated differences in meanings and uses of the concept" (p. 297). Therefore, reference materials were sourced in areas in which the term conceptual understanding was found. Data was located using an electronic literature search of the Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL), Psychological Literature (PsycINFO), and Education Literature (ERIC) databases from 1980 to 2014 using the keyword conceptual understanding. …