Showing papers in "Transformation in 2017"

The Importance of Using Manipulatives in Teaching Math Today

Abstract: This paper explores the research and use of mathematics manipulatives in the teaching of mathematics today during an age of technology and standardized testing. It looks at the drawbacks and cautions educators as they use math manipulatives in their instruction. It also explores some cognitive concerns as a teacher goes about teaching with math manipulatives. The paper shares many commonly used math manipulatives used in today’s classrooms and matches them up to some of the Common Core Math Standards that are taught today in classrooms in the USA and around the world.

Soteriology at the Altar: Pentecostal Contributions to Salvation as Praxis

Abstract: The day of Pentecost serves as a central integrative theme for the practices, theological concepts, and biblical narratives nurturing Pentecostal soteriology. The so-called “full gospel” provides t...

Leading in Global-Glocal Missional Contexts: Learning from the Journey of the Wycliffe Global Alliance:

Abstract: The journey of the Wycliffe Global Alliance (WGA) is an example of how some paradigm shifts are influencing leading in mission. Since Christianity is both an agent and product of globalization, its...

Religion, Hermeneutics and Violence: An Introduction:

Abstract: This introductory article orients the reader to the topic of this volume – the religious hermeneutics of violence – and situates the individual articles within the wider discussion of the role of r...

Postdenominational Missiology: Developing an Ecumenical Renewalist Approach:

Abstract: The emergence of postdenominational identities has been recognised as a significant development in approaches to mission. These contribute to a deeper form of ecumenism in the way they integrate different traditions in themselves rather than starting from a confessional or correlational outlook. They also seek to develop over time through ongoing dialogue with different traditions. This article examines one such postdenominational identity, the emerging ‘renewalist’ identity that is particularly shaped by the charismatic tradition. A renewalist approach is contrasted with the ecumenical approaches of Lausanne and the World Council of Churches as represented in their latest agreed statements on mission. We also consider the next stage of renewalist development by asking how it might learn from these mission statements. This article strengthens the claim to significance of postdenominational identities and clarifies the nature of renewalist missiology.

Early Modern Religious Violence and the Dark Side of Church History

Abstract: How should Christians interact with historical violence in their own tradition? Faced with a barrage of arguments from the ‘New Atheists’ that this killing invalidates biblical truth claims, Christ...

Finland: An Exemplary STEM Educational System

Abstract: There is a need for an increase in the number of students entering fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and the only way for that to happen is for educational reforms to be put into place (PCAST, 2012). Improvement and focus on STEM education are a concern of all nations whether they have an emerging economy or one that is long established. The world of the 21st century is such that in order to compete globally countries must invest in STEM education (Kennedy & Odell, 2014). The United States scores on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) were not in the top ten for reading, mathematics, nor science. To rectify this, it is imperative that changes be made to the educational system (Schleicher, ed., 2012). Looking at countries that are consistently at the top is one way to find potential solutions and models of reform. One country that has successfully reformed their educational system is Finland. Within their educational system, the strategies of collaboration and communication are widely utilized by the instructors as well as the students (Sislian, Gabardo, Macedo, & Ribeiro, 2015). While analyzing a single country’s instructional program can give insights into what makes it successful, it is beneficial to compare that country to others that are also achieving success in order to determine any trends and commonalities. The countries used for this comparison were chosen because they were different culturally, geographically, and politically, but in spite of their differences, they were among the top-scoring nations on the PISA.

Advancing Alternative Pathways to Science: Community Partnership, Do-It-Yourself (DIY)/Do-It-Together (DIT) Collaboration, and STEM Learning "from Below"

Abstract: This article examines how makerspace projects can be used as possible sites for creating alternative pathways to science for marginalized and historically underrepresented high school students. A community engagement course focusing on environmental racism and social justice in particular illustrates how key partnerships can develop among college, high school, and community-based organizations. By embracing the ethos of the maker community, students are encouraged to create spaces of skill sharing and cooperation to build a homemade air sensor to chart levels of air pollution at a local high school located less than 100 feet from a busy highway. By appreciating the \"funds of knowledge\" that every student brings to the project, makerspaces allow for democratic spaces of peer-to-peer learning and the development of culturally relevant modes of scientific learning.

"Un art entre deux" : Pratique réfléxive d'adultes dits "en difficulté" à l'écrit

Abstract: Les adultes dits "en difficulte" a l’ecrit ont longtemps ete etudies du point de vue de leurs manques, de leurs difficultes, de leurs besoins, pas seulement dans leur rapport a l’ecrit, mais aussi dans tous les aspects de leur vie personnelle, sociale et professionnelle. Certains sociologues des annees 70 ont mis en evidence un deficit, nomme "handicap socioculturel", qui frapperait les publics de milieux populaires, disposant d’un "code restreint" (B. Berstein, 1975). La presse, portee par un discours politique et humanitaire, s’est egalement emparee de cette question, operant frequemment des amalgames entre illettrisme, pauvrete, maladie, violence sociale, analyses notamment dans les travaux de C. Frier (1992) et B. Lahire (1992, 1999). (...)

Proof, Proving and Mathematics Curriculum

Abstract: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, a US based teachers association, strongly encourages teachers to make proof and reasoning an integral part of student mathematics. However, the literature shows that, far from being integral, proving remains compartmentalized within the North American school curriculum and is restricted to a specific mathematical domain. Consequently, students suffer in their understandings and are ill prepared for the rigorous mathematical proving that many of them will encounter later at the postsecondary level. The literature suggests that compartmentalization is mainly due to teacher’s lack of experience in proof and proving and their subsequent inability to guide students through the various stages of mathematical justifications. In this article, a brief overview of the history of proof is provided. Also, the nature of proof is explained and its importance in school mathematics is argued for. Teachers can help students better if they are aware of the stages that students experience over time as they become progressively more sophisticated at proof and proving tasks. By using a developmental model of proving, teachers are more likely to guide students effectively as they move from one stage to the other. Balacheff (1988) provides one of the most commonly used hierarchies to categorize student proof schemes. Few articles within the literature, however, apply this taxonomy in explicit ways by aligning examples of possible efforts to solve proof tasks with Balacheff’s stages of proof. This article illustrates in accordance with Balacheff’s taxonomy and by using examples, how a student might tackle a proof task. It is also argued that even though explanatory proofs are relevant to school mathematics, overemphasis on verbal proofs may result in watered down mathematical proofs. With an example I also demonstrate that students can transition fairly easily from explanatory proof to formal two –column proof.

The provocation of Gaïa: learning to pay attention in Rotary Park

Abstract: How do we learn with the environments we inhabit to promote mutual flourishing? This paper argues that environmental arts practice is a key component in the pedagogical process of getting to know where we live and, through a more-than-human intersubjective exchange, enriching our response-ability to the environment. To think through and work towards this pedagogy we explore a small patch of Gaïa – the Rotary Park Rainforest Reserve in Lismore, New South Wales – via a photography and video project that contemplates didactic and interpretive signs along a short walking circuit. Crucial to our contemplation of this environmental arts project are concepts for action that we develop by putting into conversation ideas from the environmental humanities and early childhood education: progettazione, time to learn, provocation and attention. Through aesthetic immersion in, and in dialogue with the forest, these concepts help us conceptualise a regenerative curriculum and relational pedagogy that energise, amongst other things, environmental arts in-the-making.

Christian Responses to Islamism and Violence in the Name of Islam

Abstract: The capture of Mosul in Iraq by ISIS (the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) in June 2014 focused the world’s attention on Islamism, or political Islam. In addition to all the political issues faced by the rest of the world, Christians are faced with some special challenges and have not always responded with a single voice. If we are to think in a distinctively Christian way about Islamism and violence carried out in the name of Islam, what are the key questions that we need to be asking?

The Use of Violent Biblical Texts by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Northern Uganda:

Abstract: This article examines the ideologies employed to justify violence by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) in northern Uganda, while basing themselves on biblical texts from the Old Testament. The artic...

Learning about Neighborhood Identity, Streets as Places, and Community Engagement in a Chicago Studio Course

Abstract: abstract:ChicagoLAB is an intensive summer program consisting of an interdisciplinary team of undergraduate and graduate students. Participants are expected to fully engage and collaborate on a community project where they can put into practice their architectural, planning, and design skills while they reflect on and demonstrate an understanding of the cultural, socioeconomic, and historical forces that shape neighborhood identity. By engaging with community leaders, residents, and experts, students develop a community-driven strategy. This article explores the methodologies that students used, such as case studies, on-site observations, and community participatory practices associated with creating a street design or public art project. Examples of the latter include \"Paint the Pavement\" projects (painting on the road) and parklets (seating or green areas in parking spaces for public use) that promote safety as well as a neighborhood sense of place. Placemaking—that is, giving an identity to public spaces—activities were associated with maintaining Puerto Rican identity in Humboldt Park, a rapidly gentrifying neighborhood in Chicago.

Accompagner des mémoires professionnels sur une plate-forme numérique

Abstract: L’ecrit, comme le montrent tres clairement J. Crignon et M. Guigue (2006, p.117), sert frequemment a conclure de nombreux dispositifs de formation. Pour certains, cette ecriture s’effectue en fin de stage, en vue de finaliser une experience, de rendre compte d’une action et d’echanger a son propos : ce sont souvent des rapports de stage ou comptes-rendus d’experiences. Pour d’autres, cette ecriture se fait pendant l’action : ce sont plutot des memoires professionnels rediges au cours "de dispositifs professionnalises, irrigues, nourris, alimentes par une activite de terrain" (G. Leclercq, 2006, p. 11). Ces ecrits, temoins de la professionnalisation emergente de futurs professionnels, sont accompagnes au cours d’un processus qui s’effectue le plus souvent dans l’intimite de l’interaction des protagonistes. (...)

Measuring movements in the field: Practices of surveying community walking areas in Finland and Australia

Abstract: Walking involves aligning, recalibrating, and interacting with the environment. Growing research in the humanities and social sciences recognises walking as an embodied practice that situates humans in the nonhuman realm, and is indicative of how our mobilities connect with larger socio-cultural and environmental systems. The ‘Land Art’ movement used walking interventions that respond to environmental elements, however many of these artworks focus on the individual human perspective, disregarding nonhuman actions that also exist in each site. Focusing on the act of walking through forests and parks in Finland and Australia, this paper examines creative practices of ‘surveying’ that foreground more-than-human movements. I discuss site-specific artworks and experiments that respond to sites frequently walked over, to create new modes of encounter that alters anthropocentric perceptions of walking practices. Measuring movements in the field, through appropriating formal practices of surveying, assists in understanding how human action is positioned within broader ecologies and global systems of measure.

Révélation et construction de sens : une formation dialogique pour une pratique du ré-enchantement

Abstract: Je voudrais profiter de l’occasion de cet article pour m’offrir l’opportunite de me renseigner moi-meme au sujet de ma pratique d’accompagnateur de changement dans les systemes humains. Cet exercice est entrepris dans une visee d’echange de savoirs, mais aussi de conscientisation et de renouvellement de cette pratique. J’ai depuis plus de trois decennies une pratique d’accompagnement polyforme. Je me suis nourri a la fois de la culture de l’intervention psychosociologique et de travail de groupe classique, d’une culture et d’une pratique artistique ainsi que d’une longue experience clinique. Par ailleurs, une rigoureuse quete de conscience, qui a ete marquee entre autres par les traditions bouddhistes et amerindiennes, a constamment accompagne et donne forme a mon chemin d’homme et de praticien. Ma pratique a par consequent evolue avec le temps et elle utilise des methodologies et des protocoles de travail distincts et varies, bien que parfois ils peuvent avoir des liens de convergences. Je voudrais ici regarder la specificite d’une de mes manieres d’accompagner qui procede par la mediation d’une creation visuelle. Ce travail vise a permettre une representation sous forme de symbolisation d’un vecu interieur en vue de le rendre visible et intelligible pour soi et pour les autres. (...)

Incompétence ou disqualification ? La situation des salariés dits peu qualifiés au travail

Abstract: Quand on evoque la question de la qualification, il est desormais courant de distinguer entre deux conceptions visant a la definir : - une conception substantialiste, qui cherche a la saisir en elle-meme, dans une approche guidee par une volonte de mesure, a la recherche d’un critere objectif qui n’existe pas et qui euphemise, lors meme qu’ils sont pris en consideration, les rapports sociaux de travail ; - une conception relativiste, qui s’interesse a la qualification en tant qu’enjeu entre des forces contradictoires et conflictuelles, ou l’objectif des acteurs en presence et en tension, a differents niveaux d’intervention du social, est la definition de regles collectives et de garanties de reconnaissance de la contribution au travail, instaurant le classement et la hierarchisation des positions et des emplois dans la societe.

Working Collaboratively—Teaching Collaboration

Abstract: abstract:My research into the dynamics and mechanics of collaboration and teaching collaborative practices started as a studio art project with a colleague. In this project, we worked deliberately and self-consciously on our collaboration to extract a set of parameters or guidelines for our students. Since then, I have helped develop a linked pair of courses titled \"Integrative Studio\" and \"Integrative Seminar\" that include \"teaching students how to collaborate\" as a learning outcome. My research for this article began by asking faculty who teach this course how they approach the topic. This article is grounded in four narratives that describe how to teach students to work in groups. Working in groups teaches students the meaning of the word peer in an authentic manner as a lived experience that is central to contemporary discussions of effective learning. Students who learn to collaborate may gain a deeper understanding of the way their minds work, find a commitment to building strong communities, understand dispositions toward learning, and exercise higher-order thinking skills. Although my work is specifically within art and design, the ideas and strategies discussed could be applied to or adapted for other contexts.

De l'analyse de l'expérience à l'évaluation des acquis : une recherche de nouveaux savoirs

Abstract: Ce texte s'inscrit dans le continuum d'une reflexion engagee a partir de la fin des annees 2000, a partir de trois questionnements quasi simultanes et qui se sont croises : le premier concernant la participation a un "bilan de la recherche en education de 1960 a 2005" a propos de l'evolution des idees dans le champ de la recherche sur l'evaluation, le second posant la question d'une dimension epistemologique de l'evaluation en education, le troisieme accompagnant les preoccupations d'un "groupe de travail sur la RVAE" sur la pertinence et les fondements de la validation. En effet, l'idee de reflechir sur la "validation des acquis de l'experience" comme nouvelle forme d'evaluation et, par consequent, comme production de nouveaux savoirs sur l'experience et sur la competence s'est peu a peu imposee. Les apports de plusieurs disciplines, reliees par la didactique professionnelle et les travaux comme ceux de Pastre et de Mayen, notamment, ayant contribue a developper une hypothese de connaissance des processus de la RVAE, rien n'empeche de s'interesser, aujourd'hui, a un questionnement epistemologique de l'evaluation de ces processus et de leurs effets. (...)

Que font les accompagnateurs en VAE ? Une contribution de la recherche en didactique professionnelle

Abstract: Cet article s'inscrit dans le cadre des travaux du groupe Reconnaissance et Validation des Acquis de l'Experience (RVAE) de l'ADMEE. Depuis 2002 le groupe s'est engage dans des travaux de recherches portant d'une part, sur les procedures d'evaluation des acquis de l'experience et d'autre part, sur les activites des differents protagonistes. Dans ce cadre, nos contributions se sont inscrites dans l'analyse des pratiques des accompagnateurs et des jurys VAE a partir du cadre conceptuel de la didactique professionnelle (Chakroun, 2009a). L'une des questions les plus essentielles de la didactique professionnelle consiste a se demander quel est l'objet de l'apprentissage et du developpement. En meme temps, la didactique professionnelle suggere de fonder l'analyse de l'apprentissage et du developpement sur l'analyse de l'action en situation. Il s'agit, notamment, de comprendre comment les individus construisent des formes d'action efficaces pour maitriser et apprendre des situations (Mayen, Ferron, Humblot & Bazile, 2006). Dans ce sens, la didactique professionnelle considere que les caracteristiques de la situation composent la forme de vie au sein de laquelle il faut agir et qu'il faut s'approprier (Mayen, 2004). Enfin, c'est pourquoi, du point de vue methodologique, la didactique professionnelle place a l'origine de sa demarche avant tout le souci d'aller interroger l'activite des praticiens (Samurcay & Pastre, 2004). (...)

Rapport(s) au(x) savoir(s) et perspectives temporelles d'adultes en situation d'illettrisme

Abstract: Les individus ayant quitte precocement le systeme scolaire, c’est-a-dire sans qualification au terme de l’instruction obligatoire, sont confrontes a des difficultes d’acces a la formation (V. Leclercq, 2006, p. 91) qui renvoient a un probleme d’offre a destination d’un public peu qualifie1. Cela souleve specifiquement la question de la nature des besoins en formation ainsi que le sens de l’engagement du sujet. La reprise d’une formation par ces adultes est generalement percue en termes d’employabilite, d’adaptation au marche du travail et d’insertion professionnelle rapide. Former au plus vite afin de faciliter une insertion professionnelle rapide semble etre une conception repandue au sein des politiques sociales de lutte contre l’exclusion qui ne prennent en compte, comme seule unite de mesure, que le temps de l’urgence et de l’adaptation au marche de l’emploi (J. Biarnes, 2007, p. 42). Ce mode de penser nous parait reducteur en ce qu’il n’aborde pas ces adultes du point de vue de leur subjectivite et de leur projet et qu’il renvoie uniquement a une vision economiste de la formation. Cependant, certains adultes parviennent, malgre les difficultes, a s’engager dans une formation et a s’inscrire dans une dynamique, qualifiee par les specialistes de la formation d’adultes, de "seconde chance". Il convient ici d’identifier et d’analyser les logiques et processus qui la sous-tendent. Des lors, nous tenterons de reinscrire ce phenomene d’engagement dans la formation dans les problematiques du rapport au savoir en formation d’adultes (N. Ait-Abdesselam, 2003).

On writing [expressing a relation to] dried plant specimens

Abstract: This paper discusses an instance of, or an attempt at, interspecies communication, collaboration, or convocation. I am writing dried specimens in the Southern Cross Plant Science Medicinal Plant Herbarium, Southern Cross University, Australia. Wendy Wheeler describes ecocriticism, developed late last century, as a “new critical formation” responding to environmental crises. The paper will briefly allude to these crises, and ecocriticism and its cognates, and suggested procedures for action. The paper’s primary concern is wrestling with how to do interspecies communication and collaboration as such action. As Martin Harrison asks: “What are the necessary criteria for a writing which ... fulfils an ecological requirement?” I consider Harrison’s, Ryan’s, and others’ suggestions of criteria, modes and procedures. I discuss using the frame of ekphrasis and the genre of the prose poem in my investigation of writing the more-thanhuman. I contest arguments about dealing with dried specimens as a limited sensory experience. And I consider the interdisciplinarity of this instance of creative writing with science.

L'accompagnement, un métier d'art : question identitaire et processus de professionnalisation

Abstract: Cet ecrit n'a pour objet que d'etre l'expression d'un questionnement et d'une tentative de problematisation de la part d'une praticienne en transition. En effet, pratiquant l'accompagnement depuis une quinzaine d'annees, dont une moitie dans le champ de l'insertion sociale et professionnelle et une autre moitie uniquement consacree a l'accompagnement de projet tel que le definit J.P. Boutinet (2007), ce questionnement s'inscrit dans un contexte professionnel et personnel particulier. Bien sur, allions nous dire, tant ce qui nous interroge peut, le plus souvent, etre porteur de la resonance d'evenements de vie. Ainsi, c'est lors d'une rupture professionnelle qu'est apparue dans nos propos une certaine revendication a etre reconnue comme une "professionnelle de l'accompagnement" sans pouvoir faire, pour autant, l'economie de se demander au nom de quoi se qualifier de la sorte... Bien plus que sur une fonction ou un metier, cette revendication portait avant tout sur la reconnaissance d'une experience professionnelle et de vie au cours de laquelle la palette des accompagnements pratiques avait ete riche et nuancee. Pour avoir partage le chemin de personnes parmi les moins qualifiees et les plus fragilisees socialement et personnellement et celui de personnes les mieux inserees et parmi les plus qualifiees, nous avons pu experimenter differentes tonalites d'accompagnement et ceci dans des temporalites elles aussi tres variees, parfois au fil de plusieurs annees, parfois au cours de quelques semaines. (...)

Teaching Writing as Community Activism: Reimagining Black Masculinity, Ending Sexual Violence

Abstract: This article looks at the way in which we have infused community-based learning about gender and sexuality into freshman composition classes at Morehouse College. Morehouse is unique—it is the only college on the planet devoted to the higher education of African American men. Masculinity politics are often complicated at this single-gendered institution, where patriarchy still governs the culture and curriculum. More recently, students who are resisting or questioning traditional gender constructs have been more vocal, forcing the community to confront how and how often we engage with these issues. First-year composition courses are ideal places to first integrate the study of gender and sexuality because all first-year students are required to take this English sequence. This article—using models from bell hooks, Cynthia Neale Spence, and others involved in service learning and gender studies—focuses on how to promote community engagement, innovative pedagogical approaches, and, most importantly, a critical gender/sexuality conversation. The result of more conversation around gender and violence is that our male students realize that they share multiple memberships in different yet interrelated communities.

The Politics and Ethics of Extensão Universitária in Brazil: Engaging Communities in Teaching and Scholarship

Abstract: Teaching community requires more than transmitting a set of skills or technical knowledge. It is perhaps one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. This paper contributes to the pedagogy of community in higher education through the analysis of university extension in Brazil. Three elements are crucial to the success of the Brazilian university extension model to teach community. The first is the historical commitment to ethical and political principles and values aimed at social justice, inclusion, and transformation, as well as a shared critical understanding of the complexity of social, economic, and political inequality. Second, the method is derived from critical theory, primarily in the form of Freirean pedagogy, as well as participant and action research. Third, the institutionalization of university extension through the Ministry of Education has provided the necessary means and support at the local, regional, and national levels. Latin America has a unique model of university extension that was developed in the twentieth century, with significant contributions from student movements. Liberation theology and Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy are also noteworthy historical undercurrents that have shaped Brazil's 2012 National Policy of University Extension. Community is achieved through ongoing interactions based on reciprocity among faculty, staff, students, and the general public; the dialogical method; and the common goal and commitment of prioritizing the needs of socially excluded segments of the population.

A Letter to Educators about Teaching toward Caribbean Decoloniality

Abstract: The author composed this article as a letter to educators with the intention to problematize and interrupt the ongoing legitimization of one-sided knowledge taught to students about Caribbean histories during their years of formal schooling. This also shapes students' ethnocentric worldviews and understandings of community representations. Alerted by increasingly popular student spring break travels and summer semester abroad programs, the author offers curricular guidance, lived experiences, and personal reflections to broaden the epistemological base for ongoing manifestations of white settler colonialism. By weaving together global and local manifestations of contemporary coloniality, the author also advocates for the necessity to include Caribbean white settler colonialism in pedagogical endeavors across the disciplines. The author argues that moving conversations with students away from colonial learning traditions that are based on self-preservations and consumption and toward uncomfortable, unsettling, and selfless stances of inquiry can nourish the harvesting of decoloniality in education.

Re-Reading the American History Textbook in the Global Age

Abstract: This article reconsiders the American history textbook as a pedagogical tool, arguing that with creative use, textbooks can be used to introduce students to historical thought and critical reading as global citizens. Exploring textbooks' treatment of immigration to the United States in the 1920s, the authors examine content related to the topic within two examples: The American Pageant: A History of the Republic (1956) and The American Pageant: A History of the American People (2010), successive editions of the same textbook. The authors argue that problematic textbook content cited by scholars can be turned into valuable pedagogical material if educators use the books to pose three core questions to students: What does it say? What does it mean? and Why does it matter? These questions can lead to a deeper critical analysis of information. Making use of the sample worksheet provided in , instructors can help guide students through textbook content while leading them toward a deeper reading of information. First, students are asked to display a literal level of comprehension. Second, they begin to use historical thinking by analyzing the material's significance and placing it into the proper historiographical context. Finally, students are required to ponder the impact the textbooks have on the creation of global citizens. The fundamental structure of the pedagogy can be configured for any sampling of textbooks and topics. Re-reading the textbook in the global age gives students the necessary skills to navigate the twenty-first century and its diverse offering of media and international issues.

Information Literacy in the American Literature Classroom

Abstract: This brief essay details, in first person, the efforts made by one instructor to teach information literacy—the skills involved in how to find, evaluate, and use information—within an early American literature class. Although the term information literacy has been around since the 1980s, the idea has taken on new meaning in the wake of a presidential election affected by deluges of "fake news." After giving students a primer on how to evaluate the credibility of online news sources, the instructor required three current event connections that linked readings to contemporary news happenings and provided productive connections between the past and present. The course also generally foregrounded the transmission of information, the development of print technologies, and disagreements over the status of "truth." Finally, students completed a primary source project in which they selected a digitized document or image and linked it to the course readings, first presenting it to their peers orally and then finalizing it in a formal paper.