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Showing papers in "Trends in Ecology and Evolution in 2012"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Biodiversity has key roles at all levels of the ecosystem service hierarchy: as a regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes, as a final ecosystem service and as a good that is subject to valuation, whether economic or otherwise.
Abstract: The relationship between biodiversity and the rapidly expanding research and policy field of ecosystem services is confused and is damaging efforts to create coherent policy. Using the widely accepted Convention on Biological Diversity definition of biodiversity and work for the UK National Ecosystem Assessment we show that biodiversity has key roles at all levels of the ecosystem service hierarchy: as a regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes, as a final ecosystem service and as a good that is subject to valuation, whether economic or otherwise. Ecosystem science and practice has not yet absorbed the lessons of this complex relationship, which suggests an urgent need to develop the interdisciplinary science of ecosystem management bringing together ecologists, conservation biologists, resource economists and others.

1,412 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: New T-statistics ('T' for trait) are introduced, based on the comparison of intraspecific and interspecific variances of functional traits across organizational levels, to operationally incorporate intrapecific variability into community ecology theory.
Abstract: Despite being recognized as a promoter of diversity and a condition for local coexistence decades ago, the importance of intraspecific variance has been neglected over time in community ecology. Recently, there has been a new emphasis on intraspecific variability. Indeed, recent developments in trait-based community ecology have underlined the need to integrate variation at both the intraspecific as well as interspecific level. We introduce new T-statistics ('T' for trait), based on the comparison of intraspecific and interspecific variances of functional traits across organizational levels, to operationally incorporate intraspecific variability into community ecology theory. We show that a focus on the distribution of traits at local and regional scales combined with original analytical tools can provide unique insights into the primary forces structuring communities.

1,304 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A comprehensive inventory of the potential implications of personality differences, ranging from population growth and persistence to species interactions and community dynamics, and covering issues such as social evolution, the speed of evolution, evolvability, and speciation is provided.
Abstract: Personality differences are a widespread phenomenon throughout the animal kingdom. Past research has focused on the characterization of such differences and a quest for their proximate and ultimate causation. However, the consequences of these differences for ecology and evolution received much less attention. Here, we strive to fill this gap by providing a comprehensive inventory of the potential implications of personality differences, ranging from population growth and persistence to species interactions and community dynamics, and covering issues such as social evolution, the speed of evolution, evolvability, and speciation. The emerging picture strongly suggests that personality differences matter for ecological and evolutionary processes (and their interaction) and, thus, should be considered a key dimension of ecologically and evolutionarily relevant intraspecific variation.

990 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A new framework to integrate data on neutral and adaptive markers to protect biodiversity is provided and it is proposed that the use of neutral versus adaptive markers should not be viewed as alternatives.
Abstract: Genomic data have the potential to revolutionize the delineation of conservation units (CUs) by allowing the detection of adaptive genetic variation, which is otherwise difficult for rare, endangered species. In contrast to previous recommendations, we propose that the use of neutral versus adaptive markers should not be viewed as alternatives. Rather, neutral and adaptive markers provide different types of information that should be combined to make optimal management decisions. Genetic patterns at neutral markers reflect the interaction of gene flow and genetic drift that affects genome-wide variation within and among populations. This population genetic structure is what natural selection operates on to cause adaptive divergence. Here, we provide a new framework to integrate data on neutral and adaptive markers to protect biodiversity.

771 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Along with other tools and data types, coalescent-based species delimitation will play an important role in an integrative taxonomy that emphasizes the identification of species limits and the processes that have promoted lineage diversification.
Abstract: The statistical rigor of species delimitation has increased dramatically over the past decade. Coalescent theory provides powerful models for population genetic inference, and is now increasingly important in phylogenetics and speciation research. By applying probabilistic models, coalescent-based species delimitation provides clear and objective testing of alternative hypotheses of evolutionary independence. As acquisition of multilocus data becomes increasingly automated, coalescent-based species delimitation will improve the discovery, resolution, consistency, and stability of the taxonomy of species. Along with other tools and data types, coalescent-based species delimitation will play an important role in an integrative taxonomy that emphasizes the identification of species limits and the processes that have promoted lineage diversification.

727 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The progression of food-web ecology and the challenges in using the food- web approach are summarized and five areas of research are identified where advances can continue, and be applied to global challenges.
Abstract: The global biodiversity crisis concerns not only unprecedented loss of species within communities, but also related consequences for ecosystem function. Community ecology focuses on patterns of species richness and community composition, whereas ecosystem ecology focuses on fluxes of energy and materials. Food webs provide a quantitative framework to combine these approaches and unify the study of biodiversity and ecosystem function. We summarise the progression of food-web ecology and the challenges in using the food-web approach. We identify five areas of research where these advances can continue, and be applied to global challenges. Finally, we describe what data are needed in the next generation of food-web studies to reconcile the structure and function of biodiversity.

530 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Data for terrestrial (including littoral) organisms in the Pacific is examined to show that knowledge of dispersal by wind, birds and oceanic drift or rafting, coupled with information about the natural environment and biology of the organisms, can be used to generate broad biogeographic predictions.
Abstract: Tests of hypotheses about the biogeographical consequences of long-distance dispersal have long eluded biologists, largely because of the rarity and presumed unpredictability of such events. Here, we examine data for terrestrial (including littoral) organisms in the Pacific to show that knowledge of dispersal by wind, birds and oceanic drift or rafting, coupled with information about the natural environment and biology of the organisms, can be used to generate broad biogeographic predictions. We then examine the predictions in the context of the origin, frequency of arrival and location of establishment of dispersed organisms, as well as subsequent patterns of endemism and diversification on remote islands. The predicted patterns are being increasingly supported by phylogenetic data for both terrestrial and littoral organisms.

459 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A conceptual and cyber-infrastructure framework for refining species distributional knowledge that is novel in its ability to mobilize and integrate diverse types of data such that their collective strengths overcome individual weaknesses is proposed.
Abstract: Global knowledge about the spatial distribution of species is orders of magnitude coarser in resolution than other geographically-structured environmental datasets such as topography or land cover. Yet such knowledge is crucial in deciphering ecological and evolutionary processes and in managing global change. In this review, we propose a conceptual and cyber-infrastructure framework for refining species distributional knowledge that is novel in its ability to mobilize and integrate diverse types of data such that their collective strengths overcome individual weaknesses. The ultimate aim is a public, online, quality-vetted 'Map of Life' that for every species integrates and visualizes available distributional knowledge, while also facilitating user feedback and dynamic biodiversity analyses. First milestones toward such an infrastructure have now been implemented.

453 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Despite a promising outlook, the field of eukaryotic marker gene surveys faces significant challenges: how to generate data that are most useful to the community, especially in the face of evolving sequencing technologies and bioinformatics pipelines, and how to incorporate an expanding number of target genes.
Abstract: Microscopic eukaryotes are abundant, diverse and fill critical ecological roles across every ecosystem on Earth, yet there is a well-recognized gap in understanding of their global biodiversity. Fundamental advances in DNA sequencing and bioinformatics now allow accurate en masse biodiversity assessments of microscopic eukaryotes from environmental samples. Despite a promising outlook, the field of eukaryotic marker gene surveys faces significant challenges: how to generate data that are most useful to the community, especially in the face of evolving sequencing technologies and bioinformatics pipelines, and how to incorporate an expanding number of target genes.

416 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A distillation of questions about the mechanisms of speciation, the genetic basis of speciating and the relationship between speciation and diversity are presented.
Abstract: Speciation has been a major focus of evolutionary biology research in recent years, with many important advances. However, some of the traditional organising principles of the subject area no longer provide a satisfactory framework, such as the classification of speciation mechanisms by geographical context into allopatric, parapatric and sympatry classes. Therefore, we have asked where speciation research should be directed in the coming years. Here, we present a distillation of questions about the mechanisms of speciation, the genetic basis of speciation and the relationship between speciation and diversity. Our list of topics is not exhaustive; rather we aim to promote discussion on research priorities and on the common themes that underlie disparate speciation processes.

396 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The state-of-the-art and recent advances in ecoinformatics that can benefit ecologists and environmental scientists as they tackle increasingly challenging questions that require voluminous amounts of data across disciplines and scales of space and time are reviewed.
Abstract: Ecology is evolving rapidly and increasingly changing into a more open, accountable, interdisciplinary, collaborative and data-intensive science. Discovering, integrating and analyzing massive amounts of heterogeneous data are central to ecology as researchers address complex questions at scales from the gene to the biosphere. Ecoinformatics offers tools and approaches for managing ecological data and transforming the data into information and knowledge. Here, we review the state-of-the-art and recent advances in ecoinformatics that can benefit ecologists and environmental scientists as they tackle increasingly challenging questions that require voluminous amounts of data across disciplines and scales of space and time. We also highlight the challenges and opportunities that remain.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: How behavior influences the success or failure of unintentional species introductions across each stage of the introduction process is highlighted, with a particular focus on transportation and initial establishment.
Abstract: Unintentional species invasions are instigated by human-mediated dispersal of individuals beyond their native range. Although most introductions fail at the first hurdle, a select subset pass through each stage of the introduction process (i.e. transport, introduction, establishment and spread) to become successful invaders. Efforts to identify the traits associated with invasion success have predominately focused on deliberate introductions, which essentially bypass the initial introduction stage. Here, we highlight how behavior influences the success or failure of unintentional species introductions across each stage of the introduction process, with a particular focus on transportation and initial establishment. In addition, we emphasize how recent advances in understanding of animal personalities and individual-level behavioral variation can help elucidate the mechanisms underlying the success of stowaways.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that the same large-scale structures that have been purported to convey stability to food webs can also help to understand both the distribution of species diversity in nature and the relationship between species diversity and food web stability.
Abstract: Given the unprecedented rate of species extinctions facing the planet, understanding the causes and consequences of species diversity in ecosystems is of paramount importance. Ecologists have investigated both the influence of environmental variables on species diversity and the influence of species diversity on ecosystem function and stability. These investigations have largely been carried out without taking into account the overarching stabilizing structures of food webs that arise from evolutionary and successional processes and that are maintained through species interactions. Here, we argue that the same large-scale structures that have been purported to convey stability to food webs can also help to understand both the distribution of species diversity in nature and the relationship between species diversity and food web stability. Specifically, the allocation of species diversity to slow energy channels within food webs results in the skewed distribution of interactions strengths that has been shown to confer stability to complex food webs. We end by discussing the processes that might generate and maintain the structured, stable and diverse food webs observed in nature.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Factors that might predispose the Caribbean to its low resilience are identified, including faster rates of macroalgal growth, higher rates of algal recruitment, basin-wide iron-enrichment ofAlgal growth from aeolian dust, and a lack of acroporid corals, lower herbivore biomass and missing groups of herbivores.
Abstract: The great sensitivity of coral reefs to climate change has raised concern over their resilience. An emerging body of resilience theory stems largely from research carried out in a single biogeographic region; the Caribbean. Such geographic bias raises the question of transferability of concepts among regions. In this article, we identify factors that might predispose the Caribbean to its low resilience, including faster rates of macroalgal growth, higher rates of algal recruitment, basin-wide iron-enrichment of algal growth from aeolian dust, a lack of acroporid corals, lower herbivore biomass and missing groups of herbivores. Although mechanisms of resilience are likely to be ubiquitous, our analysis suggests that Indo-Pacific reefs would have to be heavily degraded to exhibit bistability or undergo coral–macroalgal phase shifts.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work outlines the essential elements of an emerging framework for urban ecology that incorporates the characteristics of contemporary urbanization and thus empowers ecologists to understand and intervene in the planning and management of cities.
Abstract: Contemporary cities are expanding rapidly in a spatially complex, non-linear manner. However, this form of expansion is rarely taken into account in the way that urbanization is classically assessed in ecological studies. An explicit consideration of the temporal dynamics, although frequently missing, is crucial in order to understand the effects of urbanization on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in rapidly urbanizing landscapes. In particular, a temporal perspective highlights the importance of land-use legacies and transient dynamics in the response of biodiversity to environmental change. Here, we outline the essential elements of an emerging framework for urban ecology that incorporates the characteristics of contemporary urbanization and thus empowers ecologists to understand and intervene in the planning and management of cities.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: How advances in data-intensive science provide accurate estimates in species distributions at continental scales by identifying complex environmental associations is described.
Abstract: Identifying ecological patterns across broad spatial and temporal extents requires novel approaches and methods for acquiring, integrating and modeling massive quantities of diverse data. For example, a growing number of research projects engage continent-wide networks of volunteers (‘citizen-scientists') to collect species occurrence data. Although these data are information rich, they present numerous challenges in project design, implementation and analysis, which include: developing data collection tools that maximize data quantity while maintaining high standards of data quality, and applying new analytical and visualization techniques that can accurately reveal patterns in these data. Here, we describe how advances in data-intensive science provide accurate estimates in species distributions at continental scales by identifying complex environmental associations.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is proposed that the study of social competence requires an integrative approach that aims to understand how the brain translates social information into flexible behavioural responses, how flexibility might be constrained by the developmental history of an individual or by trade-offs with other competences, and how social plasticity feeds back on fitness.
Abstract: ‘Social competence’ refers to the ability of an individual to optimise its social behaviour depending on available social information. Although such ability will enhance social interactions and thus raise Darwinian fitness, its evolutionary and ecological significance has been largely ignored. Social competence is based on behavioural flexibility. We propose that the study of social competence requires an integrative approach that aims to understand how the brain translates social information into flexible behavioural responses, how flexibility might be constrained by the developmental history of an individual or by trade-offs with other (ecological) competences, and how social plasticity feeds back on fitness. Finally we propose a hypothesis of how social competence can become a driver of social evolution. Behavioural flexibility as phenotypic plasticity Adaptation to the environment is a universal characteristic of living systems. According to classic evolutionary theory, adaptation by natural selection relies on heritable phenotypic variation produced by genetic variation. However, when the rate of genetic evolutionary change is outpaced by changes in the environment the need for adaptive change without genetic mutation emerges [1]. In this scenario, the evolution of phenotypic plasticity is favoured, that is, a certain genotype produces different phenotypes depending on environmental conditions [2]. Among animals, behavioural traits exhibit a greater plasticity than morphological and physiological traits and plastic changes are reversible within an individual’s lifetime (‘behavioural flexibility’). This makes behavioural flexibility a powerful, immediate mechanism allowing organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions, which may or may not be followed by other flexible adjustments of physiology or morphology. Many of these responses are simple reflexes and fixed action patterns elicited by a stimulus in the environment, when it deterministically predicts an appropriate response. However, when environmental complexity and variability increase, the capacity to adaptively modify behaviour as a function of experience and context is needed. Although some degree of context-dependent behavioural flexibility may be achieved with genetically determined rules, behavioural flexibility will often depend on cognitive abilities (understood as the acquisition, retention, and use of information; [3]) that allow individuals to adapt behavioural output to specific situations in a complex and variable world (e.g., see [4]). Interestingly, the evolutionary study of behavioural flexibility has rarely been framed within the scope of phenotypic plasticity, but rather in terms of cognitive evolution and ecology [3,5]. This is most probably due to the fact that in contrast to morphological and life history traits (which have been the main focus of phenotypic plasticity studies, and whose plasticity results from processes during development and is usually non-reversible) behavioural flexibility involves rapid changes, is labile, and is present during the whole life of the animal [6,7].

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Estimates of non-microbial diversity on Earth range from 2 million to over 50 million species, with great uncertainties in numbers of insects, fungi, nematodes, and deep-sea organisms, and prospects for further discoveries are summarized.
Abstract: Estimates of non-microbial diversity on Earth range from 2 million to over 50 million species, with great uncertainties in numbers of insects, fungi, nematodes, and deep-sea organisms. We summarize estimates for major taxa, the methods used to obtain them, and prospects for further discoveries. Major challenges include frequent synonymy, the difficulty of discriminating certain species by morphology alone, and the fact that many undiscovered species are small, difficult to find, or have small geographic ranges. Cryptic species could be numerous in some taxa. Novel techniques, such as DNA barcoding, new databases, and crowd-sourcing, could greatly accelerate the rate of species discovery. Such advances are timely. Most missing species probably live in biodiversity hotspots, where habitat destruction is rife, and so current estimates of extinction rates from known species are too low.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The microbiota is explored as a third genetic component that spurs species formation and is described as a prominent role for microbes in eukaryotic speciation.
Abstract: In the Origin of Species, Darwin struggled with how continuous changes within a species lead to the emergence of discrete species Molecular analyses have since identified nuclear genes and organelles that underpin speciation In this review, we explore the microbiota as a third genetic component that spurs species formation We first recall Ivan Wallin's original conception from the early 20th century on the role that bacteria play in speciation We then describe three fundamental observations that justify a prominent role for microbes in eukaryotic speciation, consolidate exemplar studies of microbe-assisted speciation and incorporate the microbiota into classic models of speciation

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The extent to which transgenerational induction is predictable, detectable in nature, and subject to manipulation will determine the ability of researchers to decipher its role in plant-herbivore and plant-pathogen interactions.
Abstract: Rapidly accumulating evidence shows that herbivore and pathogen attack of plants can generate particular defense phenotypes across generations. What was once thought to be an oddity of plant defense induction now appears to be a taxonomically widespread phenomenon with strong potential to impact the ecology and evolution of species interactions. DNA methylation, histone modifications, and small RNAs each contribute to transgenerational defense initiation; examples in several species demonstrate that this induction can last for multiple generations. Priming of the offspring generation for more rapid induction following subsequent attack has also been reported. The extent to which transgenerational induction is predictable, detectable in nature, and subject to manipulation will determine the ability of researchers to decipher its role in plant‐herbivore and plant‐pathogen interactions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is pointed out that the context of learning, namely how and when learning takes place, often makes a crucial difference to the predicted evolutionary outcome.
Abstract: Learning is widespread in nature, occurring in most animal taxa and in several different ecological contexts and, thus, might play a key role in evolutionary processes. Here, we review the accumulating empirical evidence for the involvement of learning in mate choice and the consequences for sexual selection and reproductive isolation. We distinguish two broad categories: learned mate preferences and learned traits under mate selection (such as bird song). We point out that the context of learning, namely how and when learning takes place, often makes a crucial difference to the predicted evolutionary outcome. Factors causing biases in learning and when one should expect the evolution of learning itself are also explored.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued for increased emphasis on predator functionality in ecosystems and less on the identities and origins of species and genotypes in order to reduce the undesirable impacts of predators.
Abstract: Recent advances highlight the potential for predators to restore ecosystems and confer resilience against globally threatening processes, including climate change and biological invasions. However, releasing the ecological benefits of predators entails significant challenges. Here, we discuss the economic, environmental and social considerations affecting predator-driven ecological restoration programmes, and suggest approaches for reducing the undesirable impacts of predators. Because the roles of predators are context dependent, we argue for increased emphasis on predator functionality in ecosystems and less on the identities and origins of species and genotypes. We emphasise that insufficient attention is currently given to the importance of variation in the social structures and behaviours of predators in influencing the dynamics of trophic interactions. Lastly, we outline experiments specifically designed to clarify the ecological roles of predators and their potential utility in ecosystem restoration.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is shown that pollinator shifts are common, being associated with at least a quarter of documented divergence events, and shift frequency and directionality vary extensively, owing to variation in intrinsic factors such as floral features and phylogenetic history.
Abstract: Since Darwin, the diversity of flowers has been attributed to selection by pollinators. Although pollinators commonly act as selective agents on floral traits, determining the extent to which they have influenced angiosperm diversification requires a historical perspective. Here we review recent studies that combine species-level phylogenies with pollinator data and show that pollinator shifts are common, being associated with at least a quarter of documented divergence events. However, shift frequency and directionality vary extensively, owing to variation in intrinsic factors such as floral features and phylogenetic history, as well as extrinsic factors such as interactions with local pollinator assemblages. Despite technical advances, phylogenies remain limited in their power to distinguish among various pollinator-driven evolutionary processes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work critically evaluates the premise that ROS-induced oxidative damage shapes life history, focussing on birds and mammals, and highlights the importance of ecological studies examining free-living animals within this experimental framework, and emphasises the value of using multiple assays to determine oxidative protection and damage.
Abstract: The idea that resources are limited and animals can maximise fitness by trading costly activities off against one another forms the basis of life-history theory. Although investment in reproduction or growth negatively affects survival, the mechanisms underlying such trade-offs remain obscure. One plausible mechanism is oxidative damage to proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we critically evaluate the premise that ROS-induced oxidative damage shapes life history, focussing on birds and mammals, and highlight the importance of ecological studies examining free-living animals within this experimental framework. We conclude by emphasising the value of using multiple assays to determine oxidative protection and damage. We also highlight the importance of using standardised and appropriate protocols, and discuss future research directions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is an urgent need for the fields of evolution and ecology to test for non-random gene flow and to more fully incorporate its effects into theory.
Abstract: Dispersal is an important life-history trait involved in species persistence, evolution, and diversification, yet is one of the least understood concepts in ecology and evolutionary biology. There is a growing realization that dispersal might not involve the random sample of genotypes as is typically assumed, but instead can be enriched for certain genotypes. Here, we review and compare various sources of such non-random gene flow, and summarize its effects on local adaptation and resource use, metapopulation dynamics, adaptation to climate change, biological invasion, and speciation. Given the possible ubiquity and impacts of non-random gene flow, there is an urgent need for the fields of evolution and ecology to test for non-random gene flow and to more fully incorporate its effects into theory.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is explained how neutral theory cannot be simultaneously used both as a null hypothesis and as an approximation, and it is shown howneutral theory always has a valuable use in one of these two roles, even though the real world is not neutral.
Abstract: Ecological neutral theory has elicited strong opinions in recent years Here, we review these opinions and strip away some unfortunate problems with semantics to reveal three major underlying questions Only one of these relates to neutral theory and the importance of ecological drift, whereas the others involve the link between pattern and process, the tradeoff between simplicity and complexity in modeling, and the role of stochasticity and drift in ecology We explain how neutral theory cannot be simultaneously used both as a null hypothesis and as an approximation However, we also show how neutral theory always has a valuable use in one of these two roles, even though the real world is not neutral

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is suggested that it is time to recognise the cryosphere as one of the biomes of Earth.
Abstract: The tundra is the coldest biome described in typical geography and biology textbooks. Within the cryosphere, there are large expanses of ice in the Antarctic, Arctic and alpine regions that are not regarded as being part of any biome. During the summer, there is significant melt on the surface of glaciers, ice caps and ice shelves, at which point microbial communities become active and play an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements within the cryosphere. In this review, we suggest that it is time to recognise the cryosphere as one of the biomes of Earth. The cryospheric biome encompasses extreme environments and is typified by truncated food webs dominated by viruses, bacteria, protozoa and algae with distinct biogeographical structures.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that the confusion arises when the genetic basis for a short- term N(e) of 50 to avoid inbreeding depression is used to justify a long-term N( e) of 500 to maintain evolutionary potential.
Abstract: The 50/500 rule has been used as a guiding principle in conservation for assessing minimum viable effective population size ( N e ). There is much confusion in the recent literature about how the 500 value should be applied to assess extinction risk and set priorities in conservation biology. Here, we argue that the confusion arises when the genetic basis for a short-term N e of 50 to avoid inbreeding depression is used to justify a long-term N e of 500 to maintain evolutionary potential. This confusion can result in misleading conclusions about how genetic arguments alone are sufficient to set minimum viable population (MVP) thresholds for assessing the extinction risk of threatened species, especially those that emphasize that MVPs should be in the thousands to maintain evolutionary potential.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The total cost of sex and how it varies in different contexts must be known to determine the benefits needed to account for the origin and maintenance of sex.
Abstract: Explaining the evolution of sex is challenging for biologists. A ‘twofold cost’ compared with asexual reproduction is often quoted. If a cost of this magnitude exists, the benefits of sex must be large for it to have evolved and be maintained. Focusing on benefits can be misleading, as this sidelines important questions about the cost of sex: what is the source of the twofold cost: males, genome dilution or both? Does the cost deviate from twofold? What other factors make sex costly? How should the costs of sex be empirically measured? The total cost of sex and how it varies in different contexts must be known to determine the benefits needed to account for the origin and maintenance of sex.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is suggested that insect mutualists may be more important 'hidden players' in insect-plant interactions than is currently realised.
Abstract: There is growing evidence of the importance of microbial mutualistic symbioses in insect-plant interactions. Mutualists may affect host plant range and enable insects to manipulate plant physiology for their own benefit. The plant can also be a route for the horizontal transfer of mutualistic microorganisms among their host insects. Where this occurs, selection for improved transmission might cause the insect mutualist to damage the plant and become a plant pathogen. Insect microbial associates can influence ecological communities by changing the way the plant interacts with their hosts' competitors and natural enemies. We review recent research in this field and suggest that insect mutualists may be more important 'hidden players' in insect-plant interactions than is currently realised.