Showing papers in "Trends in Food Science and Technology in 2001"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors highlight the potential of selected by-products as a source of functional compounds and highlight the benefits of using these byproducts as functional compounds in the context of food processing.
Abstract: There is a rapidly growing body of literature covering the role of plant secondary metabolites in food and their potential effects on human health. Furthermore, consumers are increasingly aware of diet related health problems, therefore demanding natural ingredients which are expected to be safe and health-promoting. By-products of plant food processing represent a major disposal problem for the industry concerned, but they are also promising sources of compounds which may be used because of their favourable technological or nutritional properties. The purpose of this review is to highlight the potential of selected by-products as a source of functional compounds.
1,196 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an approach is presented which reduces the diversity of parameters that affect microbial inactivation during pulsed power treatment, in particular, the required total specific energy input is discussed.
Abstract: In excess of a critical transmembrane potential ΔϕM of −1 V produced by high intensity pulsed electric fields a rapid electrical breakdown and local conformational changes of cell membranes occur which result in a drastic increase in permeability and an equilibration of the electrochemical and electrical potential differences of the cell plasma and the extracellular medium. As irreverible membrane permeabilization impairs most vital physiological control systems, high intensity pulsed electric fields may be applied as a highly effective process for the microbial decontamination of liquid foods. The efficiency of the treatment is largely influenced by the inherent properties of the foods and of the spoiling microorganisms. In addition a number of technical limitations have to be considered. In this review an approach is presented which reduces the diversity of parameters that affect microbial inactivation during pulsed power treatment. In particular, the required total specific energy input is discussed.
328 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the critical process factors and main characteristics of food products that determine the microbial inactivation kinetics are surveyed, and the authors also present a review of the potential of non-thermal pulsed electric field (PEF) technology to preserve food products.
Abstract: The potential to commercialize the non-thermal pulsed electric field (PEF) technology as a new method to preserve food products has caught the attention of the food industry that wishes to fulfil consumers demands for fresh products. In recent years, numerous research groups have demonstrated the possibility to inactivate a range of microorganisms both in buffer systems and in food products using different PEF systems. In this review, we survey the critical process factors and main characteristics of food products that determine the microbial inactivation kinetics.
297 citations
TL;DR: This review summarizes information related to digestive and muscular enzymes in fish and aquatic invertebrates and important developments in food applications of marine enzymes are reported.
Abstract: Enzymatic methods have become an important and indispensable part of the processes used by the modern food and feed industry to produce a large and diversified range of products for human and animal consumption. Aquatic environment contains the largest pool of diversified genetic material and, hence represents an enormous potential for different sources of enzymes. In recent years, recovery and characterization of enzymes from fish and aquatic invertebrates has been achieved and some interesting and novel applications related to marine enzymes in food processing have emerged. This review summarizes information related to digestive and muscular enzymes in fish and aquatic invertebrates. In addition, important developments in food applications of marine enzymes are reported.
270 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that “designer eggs” can be considered as a new type of functional food by enhancing levels of anti-oxidants and n-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Abstract: Diet plays an important role in maintaining health. Among the different products delivering essential nutrients to the body, an egg has arguably a special place, being a rich and balanced source of essential amino and fatty acids as well some minerals and vitamins. This paper focuses on the benefits to the consumer of improving the nutritional quality of eggs by enhancing levels of anti-oxidants and n-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The advantages of simultaneous enrichment of eggs with vitamin E, carotenoids, selenium and DHA include better stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) during egg storage and cooking, high availability of such nutrients as vitamin E and carotenoids, absence of off-taste and an improved anti-oxidant and n-3 status of people consuming these eggs. Having reviewed the relevant scientific literature it is concluded that “designer eggs” can be considered as a new type of functional food.
268 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a detailed literature review on the effects of pulsed electric fields on enzymes, complemented with recent results on the impact of this HELP-technology on enzymes obtained within EU project 'High electric field pulses: food safety, quality and critical process parameters' (contract FAIR-CT97-3044).
Abstract: The application of high electric field pulses (HELP) in food processing offers potential both as a preservation technology, and as an adjunct to other processes, such as drying, extraction. In respect of the use of pulsed electric fields as preservation technology, the impact of this technology on food quality degrading enzymes is of particular interest. This paper presents a detailed literature review on the effects of pulsed electric fields on enzymes, complemented with recent results on the impact of this HELP-technology on enzymes, obtained within EU project ‘High electric field pulses: food safety, quality and critical process parameters’ (contract FAIR-CT97-3044).
254 citations
TL;DR: Mayonnaise is a mixture of egg, vinegar, oil and spices and is probably one of the oldest and most widely used sauces in the world today as discussed by the authors. But it is susceptible to spoilage due to auto-oxidation, its stability depending on the type of oil used.
Abstract: Mayonnaise a mixture of egg, vinegar, oil and spices is probably one of the oldest and most widely used sauces in the world today. Traditional mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion despite containing 70–80% fat. Careful mixing of the ingredients and the addition of minor constituents help to maintain a closely packed foam of oil droplets. Low-fat mayonnaises need additional ingredients to maintain their stability. Mayonnaise, in common with all high fat foods, is susceptible to spoilage due to auto-oxidation, its stability depending on the type of oil used. Salt, as well as being important in the development of the flavour and stability appears to influence the rate of oxidation of the oil in the emulsion. The characteristic flavour of mayonnaise is derived principally from the addition of mustard, which contains isothiocyanates. These isothiocyanates are stabilized in the aqueous solution by the addition of citric acid. An understanding of the physical and chemical processes involved in the formation of emulsions has allowed the manufacture of mayonnaise, which is much, more stable during long-term storage and the development of products which contain a greater range of novel flavours.
247 citations
TL;DR: Combining the analysis of acoustic recordings with mechanical testing results has been successful for predicting crispness and crunchiness of snack foods and the next stage for acoustic research should be to relate the structure of the products to the sounds produced during mechanical breakdown of the Products in order to fully understand the textural properties of the food.
Abstract: The relationship that acoustic sensations have with the perception of texture has been studied for crisp, crunchy and crackly products This has involved evaluating the contribution of chewing sounds to the perception of these textures or recording noises produced during mastication and evaluating various acoustic parameters from the resulting amplitude–time curves Combining the analysis of acoustic recordings with mechanical testing results has been successful for predicting crispness and crunchiness of snack foods The next stage for acoustic research should be to relate the structure of the products to the sounds produced during mechanical breakdown of the products in order to fully understand the textural properties of the food
226 citations
TL;DR: Ellis, D. I., Goodacre, R. (2001), Rapid and quantitative detection of the microbial spoilage of muscle foods: current status and future trends as mentioned in this paper, 12, (11), 414-424.
Abstract: Ellis, D. I., Goodacre, R. (2001). Rapid and quantitative detection of the microbial spoilage of muscle foods: current status and future trends. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 12, (11), 414-424. Sponsorship: Agri-Food and Engineering and Biological Systems Committees of the UK BBSRC
221 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors summarized some recent developments in hybrid drying technologies of interest to food industry and identified the potential application areas for these hybrid-drying technologies in product quality enhancement.
Abstract: Drying is an indispensable process in many food industries. The drive towards improved drying technologies is spurred by the needs to produce better quality products. Improvement in quality of most food products translates into significant increase in their market value. The recent development of new hybrid drying technologies to improve food quality is in line with the present trend of ‘quality’ enhancement with reduced environmental impact. This review paper summarises some recent developments in hybrid drying technologies of interest to food industry. Numerous emerging technologies are listed and discussed in detail. The potential application areas for these hybrid drying technologies in product quality enhancement are identified.
219 citations
[...]
TL;DR: A variety of procedures have been developed and tested for the specific removal of proteins from wines as mentioned in this paper, and it has been shown that although protein-dependent, the development of turbidity in wines is controlled by a number of factors of non-protein origin.
Abstract: Proteins are typically present in wines in low concentrations, contributing little to their nutritive value. However, they assume a considerable technological and economical importance because they greatly affect the clarity and stability of wines. Although exhibiting a large diversity, the majority of the wine proteins are structurally related and have been identified as pathogenesis related (PR) proteins. Thus, different wines are essentially composed by identical sets of polypeptides. They derive from the grape pulp, and survive the vinification process simply because they are highly resistant to proteolysis and to the low pH characteristic of wines. There is increasing evidence suggesting that although protein-dependent, the development of turbidity in wines is controlled by a number of factors of non-protein origin, such as polyphenols, the wine pH and the presence of polysaccharides. A variety of procedures has been developed and tested for the specific removal of proteins from wines. Even though bentonite fining is nonspecific and can impair the quality of wine, it remains the only effective method to stabilize wines.
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the use of pulsed electric fields as an upstream process in dehydration and rehydration of plant-based foods is presented, and an effective and simple method for quantifying extent of membrane permeabilization is also discussed.
Abstract: Conventional dehydration of fruits and vegetables affects their physical and biochemical status leading to shrinkage, change of colour, texture and taste. Alteration of the physical properties of foods with minimal influence on the quality could be a means of reducing drying time, minimising quality degradation and saving energy. Increasing consumer markets for minimally processed fruits and vegetables have prompted researchers to study combined methods as preservation techniques. Pulsed electric field is one of the more promising non- thermal processing method inducing membrane permeabilisation within a very short time (μs to ms range) leaving the product matrix largely unchanged while positively affecting mass transfer in subsequent processing of foods. Rapid and accurate on-line determination of the state of cell membrane systems is important in optimising various processes (i.e. minimizing cell damage in minimal processes, monitoring disruption for mass transfer purposes and inducing biosynthetic stress/wound reactions/responses). This paper reviews recent work on the use of pulsed electric fields as an upstream process in dehydration and rehydration of plant based foods. An effective and simple method for quantifying extent of membrane permeabilization is also discussed and suggestions for future work are highlighted.
TL;DR: In this article, a review of the applications of high resolution 1 H NMR to the study of edible oils and fats is reported, and the capability of this technique to assess the quality and genuineness of olive oil and to detect adulterations is discussed.
Abstract: In this paper a review of the applications of high resolution 1 H NMR to the study of edible oils and fats is reported. Aspects such as sample preparation and acquisition parameters are treated. The assignment of the 1 H NMR signals of the major and minor components of unoxidized and of thermally stressed edible oils and fats is given. The usefulness of this technique in the determination of degree of unsaturation and of the proportion of the different acyl groups, is examined. In addition, the capability of this technique to assess the quality and genuineness of olive oil and to detect adulterations is discussed. Finally, its contribution in the study of the oxidation of edible oils and fats and its effectiveness to determine not only primary but also secondary oxidation products, and also oxidative stability is shown.
TL;DR: Vacuum cooling is a rapid evaporative cooling method for porous and moisture foods to meet the special cooling requirements as mentioned in this paper, which has been used as an effective method for pre-cooling certain type of horticultural products such as vegetables and fruits to prolong their storage life by reducing post-harvest thermal deterioration.
Abstract: Vacuum cooling is a rapid evaporative cooling method for porous and moisture foods to meet the special cooling requirements. Vacuum cooling has been used as an effective method for pre-cooling certain type of horticultural products such as vegetables and fruits to prolong their storage life by reducing post-harvest thermal deterioration. Vacuum cooling has also been successfully applied to the processing procedures for some foods such as liquid and baked foods to improve the processing efficiency by shortening the cooling time. Recent research has highlighted the feasibility of vacuum cooling for cooked meats, fishery products and ready meals, for which rapid cooling is beneficial to controlling growth of micro-organisms and preserving quality of the products.
TL;DR: High voltage exponential decay pulsed electric fields were applied to β -lactoglobulin and ovalbumin solutions, dialysed egg white, lactate dehydrogenase and protein-stabilized model or food emulsions, finding that the size distribution of oil droplets or fat globules in the studied emulsion was not markedly altered.
Abstract: High voltage exponential decay pulsed electric fields were applied to β -lactoglobulin and ovalbumin solutions, dialysed egg white, lactate dehydrogenase and protein-stabilized model or food (o/w) emulsions. Electric processing did not induce significant unfolding or aggregation of β -lactoglobulin or ovalbumin, as studied at different protein concentrations. The tetrameric enzyme lactate dehydrogenase was not inactivated after pulse processing. Thermal gels prepared from fresh or dialysed egg white had different mechanical properties, but pulse processing of dialyzed egg white only slightly affected the thermal gelling properties. Electric pulses tended to disperse large (10–15 μ m) oil droplets in model emulsions (30% peanut oil, pH 6.0) stabilized with β -lactoglobulin (5% w/w), or to dissociate large aggregates (60–70 μ m) of fat globules in liquid dairy cream (35% fat, pH 6.7). However, the size distribution of oil droplets or fat globules in the studied emulsions was not markedly altered.
TL;DR: A new methodology to design pasteurization processes for high acidic fruit products is presented, using detection and identification methods for A. acidoterrestris and data regarding heat resistance of spores and growth in fruits were collected.
Abstract: Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris is a thermoacidophilic, non-pathogenic and sporeforming bacterium which has been found in commercial pasteurized fruit juices in the past. Only few and recent studies were available in the literature, since only in 1984 Cerny et al. [Cerny, G., Hennlich, W., & Poralla, K. (1984). Fruchtsaftverderb durch bacillen: isolierung und charakterisierung des verderbserregers. Z. Lebensmitt. Unters. Forsch. 179, 224–227] reported a spoiled aseptically packaged apple juice with A. acidoterrestris and in 1987 Deinhard et al. [Deinhard, G., Blanz, P., Poralla, K., & Altan, E. (1987). Bacillus acidoterrestris sp. nov., a new thermotolerant acidophile isolated from different soils. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 10, 47–53] named first this species. Detection and identification methods for A. acidoterrestris were reviewed and data regarding heat resistance of spores and growth in fruits were collected. Finally, a new methodology to design pasteurization processes for high acidic fruit products is presented.
TL;DR: Liposomes, microscopic lipid vesicles, usually formed from phospholipids, have been used to change the pharmacokinetics profile of not only drugs, but herbs, vitamins and enzymes, and current liposome technology with respect to applications in nutrition is reviewed.
Abstract: The dietary supplement industry is growing in dynamic ways. There are broad ranges of ingredients that have established health benefits, and use of nutritional supplements is at an all time high. Most attention in the literature has been on treatment benefits and ingredient claims. Select researchers are now focusing on routes of administration, efficiency of absorption, absorption criteria, improving bioavailability and product formulation technology. Liposomes, microscopic lipid vesicles, usually formed from phospholipids, have been used to change the pharmacokinetics profile of, not only drugs, but herbs, vitamins and enzymes. Because of their unique properties liposomes are able to enhance the performance of products by increasing ingredient solubility, improving ingredient bioavailability and in vitro and in vivo stability. This article reviews liposomes, their chemistry and structure, and current liposome technology with respect to applications in nutrition.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a review of emerging non-thermal food processing techniques and their potential for quality and safety improvement of our food supply, for the ability to enhance conventional processing operations or to create alternative ones, as well as modify existing or non-conventional raw materials, food constituents or processed foods.
Abstract: Emerging non-thermal food processing techniques are receiving considerable attention. This is because of their potential for quality and safety improvement of our food supply, for the ability to enhance conventional processing operations or to create alternative ones, as well as modify existing or non-conventional raw materials, food constituents or processed foods. High intensity electric field pulse technology is one of the most advanced emerging non-thermal processing methods and is currently undergoing intensive scientific and developmental evaluation. The objectives of this review are to summarize and identify the key advantages of this emerging technology and to convert it into optimum use. Those attempts are a combination of research on a kinetic basis and on a cellular level and the subsequent transfer of the knowledge gained into pilot scale.
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of pulsed electric fields (PEF) and combination of PEF and high pressure were studied on microstructure of salmon, chicken and lumpfish roes.
Abstract: The effect of pulsed electric fields (PEF) and combination of PEF and high pressure were studied on microstructure of salmon, chicken and lumpfish roes. The results showed that PEF treatment with low field strength (less than 2 kV/cm and 20–40 pulses) had considerable effect on the microstructure, i.e. the muscle cells decreased in size and gaping occurred. PEF treatment had greater effect on salmon than chicken samples. However, roes seem to tolerate up to 18.6 kV/cm and seven pulses without visible effect. Reduction of microorganisms was still not sufficient at the same time. Combination of PEF and high pressure (200–300 MPa) had more detrimental effect on microstructure than PEF treatment alone.
TL;DR: This article presents general bioremediation principles and techniques along with representative examples of their use both in the laboratory and industry and the ways that they work and give results in the five main areas of the food industry where biOREmediation is applicable.
Abstract: Bioremediation is a general concept that includes all those processes and actions that take place in order to biotransform an environment, already altered by contaminants, to its original status. Although the processes that can be used in order to achieve the desirable results vary, they still have the same principles; the use of microorganisms or their enzymes, that are either indigenous and are stimulated by the addition of nutrients or optimization of conditions, or are seeded into the soil. There are several advantages of the implementation of such methods but mainly they have to do with the lack of interference with the ecology of the ecosystem. This article presents general bioremediation principles and techniques along with representative examples of their use both in the laboratory and industry and the ways that they work and give results in the five main areas of the food industry where bioremediation is applicable. Although the application of bioremediation to the food industry is not new, developments in microbiology and genetic engineering have given a valuable instrument to scientists to deal with contaminants in the environment. Pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, cleaning chemicals and chemicals used in the food chain are among the new contaminants which have entered the biogeochemical cycles. Bioremediating methods transform the contaminants into substances that can be absorbed and used by the autotrophic organisms with no toxic effect on them.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the information in literature about the effects of different processing methods on: (i) the structural, mechanical and barrier properties of the materials commonly used in food packaging; and (ii) the migration behavior of additives mainly from plastic packaging films.
Abstract: In recent years, new food processing techniques are attracting a lot of attention. Since some of these techniques might require the processing of foods inside their package, it is important to understand the interaction between the package and the process itself. The main objective of this article is to review the information in literature about the effects of different processing methods on: (i) the structural, mechanical and barrier properties of the materials commonly used in food packaging; and (ii) the migration behavior of additives mainly from plastic packaging films.
TL;DR: The use of microbial cultures offers a natural temperature-responsive preservation method and the suggested protocol for practical applications includes the selection of cultures, screening in microbiological media, trials in food and the strategies to enhance the inhibitory effect.
Abstract: The use of microbial cultures offers a natural temperature-responsive preservation method. The inhibition at refrigeration temperatures is associated with production of low molecular weight compounds including lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide and bacteriocins. Bacteriocin-producing cultures are not effective against Gram-negative bacteria and special strategies are needed. The role of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in the antibiosis is reviewed with the examples in a range of refrigerated foods. The suggested protocol for practical applications includes the selection of cultures, screening in microbiological media, trials in food and the strategies to enhance the inhibitory effect.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed studies of HP induced changes in milk relevant to cheesemaking, including the effects of HP on rennet coagulation time, rate of curd formation and cheese yield.
Abstract: High pressure (HP) treatment has emerged as a food processing technology primarily due to increasing interest in novel methods for preservation of foods. Applying HP to food products modifies interactions between individual components, influences rates of enzymatic reactions and can inactivate microorganisms. This paper reviews studies of HP induced changes in milk relevant to cheesemaking, including the effects of HP on rennet coagulation time, rate of curd formation and cheese yield. Published studies on the effects of direct HP treatment of cheese and specifically the effects of HP on cheese ripening characteristics, functionality and microbiology, are also reviewed.
TL;DR: It was concluded that immobilizing the salt-tolerant yeasts gives only small productivity benefits to this new process, and the continuous microfiltration membrane reactor seems to be a good alternative for increasing the productivity.
Abstract: In soy-sauce processes salt-tolerant yeasts are very important for the flavour formation. This flavour formation is, however, slow and poorly understood. In the last decades, a concerted research effort has increased the understanding and resulted in the derivation of mutants with an enhanced flavour formation. In addition, a new process using immobilized salt-tolerant yeasts has been developed and shown to be very effective for accelerating the flavour formation. From this study, it was, however, concluded that immobilizing the salt-tolerant yeasts gives only small productivity benefits to this new process. For increasing the productivity, the continuous microfiltration membrane reactor seems to be a good alternative.
TL;DR: This paper illustrates with an example of how it is possible to clone the behaviour of bovine carcass classifiers, leading to possible further industrial applications.
Abstract: In this paper we advocate the application of Artificial Intelligence techniques to quality assessment of food products. Machine Learning algorithms can help us to: (a) extract operative human knowledge from a set of examples; (b) conclude interpretable rules for classifying samples regardless of the non-linearity of the human behaviour or process; and (c) help us to ascertain the degree of influence of each objective attribute of the assessed food on the final decision of an expert. We illustrate these topics with an example of how it is possible to clone the behaviour of bovine carcass classifiers, leading to possible further industrial applications.
TL;DR: Peroxynitrite reactions in food may be deleterious, leading to a decline of quality parameters such as flavor, color, and functional properties.
Abstract: Peroxynitrite is formed from the nearly diffusion limited reaction between nitric oxide and superoxide. This reactive nitrogen species has received intense interest in the biomedical field as an initiator of potentially harmful oxidation reactions. Peroxynitrite can also be viewed as an important pro-oxidant that affects food quality. Since most biological tissues used for foods contain systems that produce both nitric oxide and superoxide, conditions that enhance or suppress the formation of these precursors will influence the formation of peroxynitrite. The complex oxidative chemistry of peroxynitrite involves direct reactions with cellular constituents such as antioxidants, production of reactive species capable of initiating lipid oxidation, and catalyst-dependent nitration reactions which may redirect the reactivity of peroxynitrite to favor protein oxidations. Thus, peroxynitrite reactions in food may be deleterious, leading to a decline of quality parameters such as flavor, color, and functional properties.
TL;DR: One that the authors will refer to break the boredom in reading is choosing biologically active phytochemicals in food as the reading material.
Abstract: Introducing a new hobby for other people may inspire them to join with you. Reading, as one of mutual hobby, is considered as the very easy hobby to do. But, many people are not interested in this hobby. Why? Boring is the reason of why. However, this feel actually can deal with the book and time of you reading. Yeah, one that we will refer to break the boredom in reading is choosing biologically active phytochemicals in food as the reading material.
TL;DR: Questions are raised with regard to the potential risk of folic acid addition in the context of pre-existing malignant neoplasms, and the incidence of dichorionic twin births.
Abstract: This article discusses the recent consultation by the UK Department of Health and Food Standards Agency on the risk-benefit of a whole population strategy for increased intake of folic acid via the fortification of flour. The potential benefit of folic acid in relation to decreased incidence of Neural Tube Defects in the newly born is contrasted to the potential risk of increasing permanent neuropathy (nerve damage) in those suffering from vitamin B12 deficiency. Questions are also raised with regard to the potential risk of folic acid addition in the context of pre-existing malignant neoplasms, and the incidence of dichorionic twin births.
TL;DR: The role of food chemists and analysts in food risk management must be based on sound science and fact as mentioned in this paper, as well as sound management of food quality and risk assessment is necessary for appropriate risk management.
Abstract: Aspects of food safety and quality control are described, with a focus on consumer protection. On the assumption that there can be no ‘zero-risk’, not only in life generally but even in food, appropriate food control is required in order to assess compliance with labelling (e.g. in the case of functional food) and to ensure the safety of food. People have always been concerned about the safety and quality of the food they eat. Some examples illustrate that there has always been a risk of fraud, since food became a trade object. It is difficult to separate food quality from food safety, as they are interdependent. Analytical methodologies are evolving and reflect the complexity of the subject. Risk assessment is necessary for appropriate risk management. The role of food chemists and analysts is described in this context. It is stressed throughout this paper that food risk management must be based on sound science and fact.
TL;DR: In this paper, it was shown that caseins share many of the same properties and may therefore exist naturally in a molten globule-like state with defined secondary structure and limited fluctuating tertiary structure, which lead to their propensity for polymerization.
Abstract: The molten globule state has been regarded as a major intermediate in protein folding. It is characterized by native-like secondary structure with a compact molecular size but little specific tertiary structure. α-lactalbumin under various denaturing conditions has been considered a paradigm of the classical molten globule state. It has been shown that caseins share many of the same properties and may therefore exist naturally in a molten globule-like state with defined secondary structure and limited fluctuating tertiary structure, which lead to their propensity for polymerization. The architectural concepts of tensegrity may be used to describe, in part, the structure of casein polymers.