Showing papers in "Ultrasonics in 2015"

Abstract: In this review we address the microscopic mechanisms that are involved in the photogeneration processes of GHz–THz coherent acoustic phonons (CAP) induced by an ultrafast laser pulse. Understanding and describing the underlying physics is necessary indeed for improving the future sources of coherent acoustic phonons useful for the non-destructive testing optoacoustic techniques. Getting more physical insights on these processes also opens new perspectives for the emerging field of the opto-mechanics where lattice motions (surface and/or interfaces ultrafast displacements, nanostructures resonances) are controlled by light. We will then remind the basics of electron–phonon and photon-phonon couplings by discussing the deformation potential mechanism, the thermoelasticity, the inverse piezoelectric effect and the electrostriction in condensed matter. Metals, semiconductors and oxide materials will be discussed. The contribution of all these mechanisms in the photogeneration process of sound will be illustrated over several examples coming from the rich literature.

Abstract: A magnetostrictive patch transducer (MPT) is a transducer that exploits the magnetostrictive phenomena representing interactions between mechanical and magnetic fields in ferromagnetic materials. Since MPT technology was mainly developed and applied for nondestructive ultrasonic testing in waveguides such as pipes and plates, this paper will accordingly review advances of this technology in such a context. An MPT consists of a magnetic circuit composed of permanent magnets and coils, and a thin magnetostrictive patch that works as a sensing and actuating element which is bonded onto or coupled with a test waveguide. The configurations of the circuit and magnetostrictive patch therefore critically affect the performance of an MPT as well as the excited and measured wave modes in a waveguide. In this paper, a variety of state-of-the-art MPT configurations and their applications will be reviewed along with the working principle of this transducer type. The use of MPTs in wave experiments involving phononic crystals and elastic metamaterials is also briefly introduced.

Abstract: The aim of this article is to provide an introduction to picosecond laser ultrasonics, a means by which gigahertz-terahertz ultrasonic waves can be generated and detected by ultrashort light pulses. This method can be used to characterize materials with nanometer spatial resolution. With reference to key experiments, we first review the theoretical background for normal-incidence optical detection of longitudinal acoustic waves in opaque single-layer isotropic thin films. The theory is extended to handle isotropic multilayer samples, and is again compared to experiment. We then review applications to anisotropic samples, including oblique-incidence optical probing, and treat the generation and detection of shear waves. Solids including metals and semiconductors are mainly discussed, although liquids are briefly mentioned.

Abstract: Fabrication of micro devices from thermoplastic polymers by ultrasonic processing has become a promising new technology in recent years. Microstructures are generated on polymer surfaces with cycle times of a few seconds and are tightly sealed in even shorter times. Investment costs and energy consumption are comparatively low and processes are very flexible enabling economic fabrication even for small-scale production. For large-scale production role-to-role fabrication has been shown reducing costs even more. A variety of micro devices have been introduced up to now mostly for microfluidic applications. Besides this, electronic circuit boards are fabricated by ultrasonic processing.

Abstract: Guided wave ultrasonics is an attractive monitoring technique for damage diagnosis in large-scale plate and pipe structures. Damage can be detected by comparing incoming records with baseline records collected on intact structure. However, during long-term monitoring, environmental and operational conditions often vary significantly and produce large changes in the ultrasonic signals, thereby challenging the baseline comparison based damage detection. Researchers developed temperature compensation methods to eliminate the effects of temperature variation, but they have limitations in practical implementations. In this paper, we develop a robust damage detection method based on singular value decomposition (SVD). We show that the orthogonality of singular vectors ensures that the effect of damage and that of environmental and operational variations are separated into different singular vectors. We report on our field ultrasonic monitoring of a 273.05 mm outer diameter pipe segment, which belongs to a hot water piping system in continuous operation. We demonstrate the efficacy of our method on experimental pitch-catch records collected during seven months. We show that our method accurately detects the presence of a mass scatterer, and is robust to the environmental and operational variations exhibited in the practical system.

Abstract: Laser powder deposition (LPD) is a rapid additive manufacturing process to produce, layer upon layer, 3D geometries or to repair high-value components. Currently there is no nondestructive technique that can guarantee absence of flaws in LPD products during manufacturing. In this paper a laser ultrasonic technique for in-line inspection of LPD components is proposed. Reference samples were manufactured from Inconel and machined flaws were created to establish the sensitivity of the technique. Numerical models of laser-generated ultrasonic waves have been created to gain a deeper understanding of physics, to optimize the set-up and to verify the experimental measurements. Results obtained on two sets of reference samples are shown. A proof-of-concept prototype has been demonstrated on some specific deposition samples with induced flaws, that were confirmed by an ultra-high sensitivity X-ray technique. Experimental outcomes prove that typical micro-defects due to the layer-by-layer deposition process, such as near-surface and surface flaws in a single layer deposit, can be detected.

Abstract: The rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining (RUEM) has been recognized as a new effective process to machining circular holes on CFRP materials. In CFRP face machining, the application of grinding tools is restricted for the tool clogging and the machined surface integrity. In this paper, we proposed a novel approach to extend the RUEM process to side milling of CFRP for the first time, which kept the effect of elliptical vibration in RUEM. The experiment apparatus was developed, and the preliminary experiments were designed and conducted, with comparison to conventional grinding (CG). The experimental results showed that when the elliptical vibration was applied in RUEM, a superior cutting process can be obtained compared with that in CG, including providing reduced cutting forces (2-43% decrement), an extended tool life (1.98 times), and improved surface integrity due to the intermittent material removal mechanism and the excellent chip removal conditions achieved in RUEM. It was concluded that the RUEM process is suitable to mill flat surface on CFRP composites.

Abstract: Guided wavefield analysis methods for detection and quantification of crack damage in an aluminum plate are presented in this paper New wavenumber components created by abrupt wave changes at the structural discontinuity are identified in the frequency-wavenumber spectra It is shown that the new wavenumbers can be used to detect and characterize the crack dimensions Two imaging based approaches, filter reconstructed imaging and spatial wavenumber imaging, are used to demonstrate how the cracks can be evaluated with wavenumber analysis The filter reconstructed imaging is shown to be a rapid method to map the plate and any existing damage, but with less precision in estimating crack dimensions; while the spatial wavenumber imaging provides an intensity image of spatial wavenumber values with enhanced resolution of crack dimensions These techniques are applied to simulated wavefield data, and the simulation based studies show that spatial wavenumber imaging method is able to distinguish cracks of different severities Laboratory experimental validation is performed for a single crack case to confirm the methods' capabilities for imaging cracks in plates

Abstract: Composite materials are increasingly being used in advanced aircraft and aerospace structures. Despite their many advantages, composites are often susceptible to hidden damages that may occur during manufacturing and/or service of the structure. Therefore, safe operation of composite structures requires careful monitoring of the initiation and growth of such defects. Ultrasonic methods using guided waves offer a reliable and cost effective method for defects monitoring in advanced structures due to their long propagation range and their sensitivity to defects in their propagation path. In this paper, some of the useful properties of guided Lamb type waves are investigated, using analytical, numerical and experimental methods, in an effort to provide the knowledge base required for the development of viable structural health monitoring systems for composite structures. The laboratory experiments involve a pitch-catch method in which a pair of movable transducers is placed on the outside surface of the structure for generating and recording the wave signals. The specific cases considered include an aluminum plate, a woven composite laminate and an aluminum honeycomb sandwich panel. The agreement between experimental, numerical and theoretical results are shown to be excellent in certain frequency ranges, providing a guidance for the design of effective inspection systems.

Abstract: UPV as non-destructive technique can effectively contribute to the low invasive in situ analysis and diagnosis of masonry elements related to the conservation, rehabilitation and strengthening of the built heritage. The use of non-destructive and non-invasive techniques brings all the times many advantages in diagnostic activities on pre-existing buildings in terms of sustainability; moreover, it is a strong necessity with respect to the conservation constraints when dealing with the historical–architectural heritage. In this work laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the effectiveness of ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) in evaluating physical and mechanical properties of Lecce stone, a soft and porous building limestone. UPV and selected physical–mechanical parameters such as density and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) were determined. Factors such as anisotropy and water presence that induce variations on the ultrasonic velocity were also assessed. Correlations between the analysed parameters are presented and discussed. The presence of water greatly affected the values of the analysed parameters, leading to a decrease of UPV and to a strong reduction of the compressive strength. A discussion of the role of the water on these results is provided. Regression analysis showed a reliable linear correlation between UPV and compressive strength, which allows a reasonable estimation of the strength of Lecce stone by means of non-destructive testing methods such as the ultrasonic wave velocity. Low correlation between UPV and density was found, suggesting that other factors than density, related to the fabric and composition, also influence the response of the selected stone to the UPV. They have no influence on the UCS, that instead showed to be highly correlated with the packing density.

Abstract: A new piezoelectric wafer made from a PMN–PT single crystal with dominant piezoelectric coefficient d36 is proposed to generate and detect guided waves on isotropic plates. The in-plane shear coupled with electric field arising from the piezoelectric coefficient is not usually present for conventional piezoelectric wafers, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT). The direct piezoelectric effect of coefficient d36 indicates that under external in-plane shear stress the charge is induced on a face perpendicular to the poled z-direction. On thin plates, this type of piezoelectric wafer will generate shear horizontal (SH) waves in two orthogonal wave propagation directions as well as two Lamb wave modes in other wave propagation directions. Finite element analyses are employed to explore the wave disturbance in terms of time-varying displacements excited by the d36 wafer in different directions of wave propagation to understand all the guided wave modes accurately. Experiments are conducted to examine the voltage responses received by this type of wafer, and also investigate results of tuning frequency and effects of d31 piezoelectric coefficient, which is intentionally ignored in the finite element analysis. All results demonstrate the main features and utility of proposed d36 piezoelectric wafer for guided wave generation and detection in structural health monitoring.

Abstract: The acoustic vibrations of single-metal and multi-material nanoparticles are studied by ultrafast pump–probe optical spectroscopy and described in the context of the continuous elastic model. The applicability of this model to the small size range, down to one nanometer, is discussed in the light of recent experimental data and ab initio calculations. Investigations of multi-material nano-objects stress the impact of the intra-particle interface on the characteristics of their vibrational modes, also yielding information on the composition and spatial distribution of the constituting materials.

Abstract: Ultrasound speckle tracking for carotid strain assessment has in the past decade gained interest in studies of arterial stiffness and cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study was to validate ...

Abstract: Wavenumber domain analysis through use of scanning laser Doppler vibrometry has been shown to be effective for non-contact inspection of damage in composites. Qualitative and semi-quantitative local wavenumber analysis of realistic delamination damage and quantitative analysis of idealized damage scenarios (Teflon inserts) have been performed previously in the literature. This paper presents a new methodology based on multi-frequency local wavenumber analysis for quantitative assessment of multi-ply delamination damage in carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite specimens. The methodology is presented and applied to a real world damage scenario (impact damage in an aerospace CFRP composite). The methodology yields delamination size and also correlates local wavenumber results from multiple excitation frequencies to theoretical dispersion curves in order to robustly determine the delamination ply depth. Results from the wavenumber based technique are validated against a traditional nondestructive evaluation method.

Abstract: The optical theorem for plane waves is recognized as one of the fundamental theorems in optical, acoustical and quantum wave scattering theory as it relates the extinction cross-section to the forward scattering complex amplitude function. Here, the optical theorem is extended and generalized in a cylindrical coordinates system for the case of 2D beams of arbitrary character as opposed to plane waves of infinite extent. The case of scalar monochromatic acoustical wavefronts is considered, and generalized analytical expressions for the extinction, absorption and scattering cross-sections are derived and extended in the framework of the scalar resonance scattering theory. The analysis reveals the presence of an interference scattering cross-section term describing the interaction between the diffracted Franz waves with the resonance elastic waves. The extended optical theorem in cylindrical coordinates is applicable to any object of arbitrary geometry in 2D located arbitrarily in the beam's path. Related investigations in optics, acoustics and quantum mechanics will benefit from this analysis in the context of wave scattering theory and other phenomena closely connected to it, such as the multiple scattering by a cloud of particles, as well as the resulting radiation force and torque.

Abstract: This research considers the effects of diffraction, attenuation, and the nonlinearity of generating sources on measurements of nonlinear ultrasonic Rayleigh wave propagation. A new theoretical framework for correcting measurements made with air-coupled and contact piezoelectric receivers for the aforementioned effects is provided based on analytical models and experimental considerations. A method for extracting the nonlinearity parameter β 11 is proposed based on a nonlinear least squares curve-fitting algorithm that is tailored for Rayleigh wave measurements. Quantitative experiments are conducted to confirm the predictions for the nonlinearity of the piezoelectric source and to demonstrate the effectiveness of the curve-fitting procedure. These experiments are conducted on aluminum 2024 and 7075 specimens and a β 11 7075 / β 11 2024 measure of 1.363 agrees well with previous literature and earlier work. The proposed work is also applied to a set of 2205 duplex stainless steel specimens that underwent various degrees of heat-treatment over 24 h, and the results improve upon conclusions drawn from previous analysis.

Abstract: In this work the existence of band gaps in a phononic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plate with a square lattice of cross-like holes is numerically and experimentally investigated. First, a parametric analysis is carried out to find plate thickness and cross-like holes dimensions capable to nucleate complete band gaps. In this analysis the band structures of the unitary cell in the first Brillouin zone are computed by exploiting the Bloch–Floquet theorem. Next, time transient finite element analyses are performed to highlight the shielding effect of a finite dimension phononic region, formed by unitary cells arranged into four concentric square rings, on the propagation of guided waves. Finally, ultrasonic experimental tests in pitch-catch configuration across the phononic region, machined on a PVC plate, are executed and analyzed. Very good agreement between numerical and experimental results are found confirming the existence of the predicted band gaps.

Abstract: Free vibration and mass detection of carbon nanotube-based sensors are studied in this paper. Since the mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes possess a size effect, the nonlocal beam model is used to characterize flexural vibration of nanosensors carrying a concentrated nanoparticle, where the size effect is reflected by a nonlocal parameter. For nanocantilever or bridged sensor, frequency equations are derived when a nanoparticle is carried at the free end or the middle, respectively. Exact resonance frequencies are numerically determined for clamped-free, simply-supported, and clamped–clamped resonators. Alternative approximations of fundamental frequency are given in closed form within the relative error less than 0.4%, 0.6%, and 1.4% for cantilever, simply-supported, and bridged sensors, respectively. Mass identification formulae are derived in terms of the frequency shift. Identified masses via the present approach coincide with those using the molecular mechanics approach and reach as low as 10 - 24 kg. The obtained results indicate that the nonlocal effect decreases the resonance frequency except for the fundamental frequency of nanocantilever sensor. These results are helpful to the design of micro/nanomechanical zeptogram-scale biosensor.

Abstract: A rapid, fully non-contact, hybrid system which encompasses an air-coupled transducer (ACT) and a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is presented for profiling A 0 Lamb wave dispersion of an isotropic aluminum plate. The ACT generates ultrasonic pressure incident upon the surface of the plate. The pressure waves are partially refracted into the plate. The LDV is employed to measure the out-of-plane velocity of the excited Lamb wave mode at some distances where the Lamb waves are formed in the plate. The influence of the ACT angle of incidence on Lamb wave excitation is investigated and Snell’s law is used to directly compute Lamb wave dispersion curves including phase and group velocity dispersion curves in aluminum plates from incident angles found to generate optimal A 0 Lamb wave mode. The measured curves are compared to results obtained from a two-dimensional (2-D) Fast Fourier transform (FFT), Morlet wavelet transform (MWT) and theoretical predictions. It was concluded that the experimental results obtained using Snell’s law concept are well in accordance with the theoretical solutions. The high degree of accuracy in the measured data with the theoretical results proved a high sensitivity of the air-coupled and laser ultrasound in characterizing Lamb wave dispersion in plate-like structures. The proposed non-contact hybrid system can effectively characterize the dispersive relation without knowledge of neither the materials characteristics nor the mathematical model.

Abstract: Experimental and numerical investigations have been performed to assess the feasibility of damage detection around rebars in concrete using focused ultrasound and a Reverse Time Migration (RTM) based subsurface imaging algorithm. Since concrete is heterogeneous, an unfocused ultrasonic field will be randomly scattered by the aggregates, thereby masking information about damage(s). A focused ultrasonic field, on the other hand, increases the possibility of detection of an anomaly due to enhanced amplitude of the incident field in the focal region. Further, the RTM based reconstruction using scattered focused field data is capable of creating clear images of the inspected region of interest. Since scattering of a focused field by a damaged rebar differs qualitatively from that of an undamaged rebar, distinct images of damaged and undamaged situations are obtained in the RTM generated images. This is demonstrated with both numerical and experimental investigations. The total scattered field, acquired on the surface of the concrete medium, is used as input for the RTM algorithm to generate the subsurface image that helps to identify the damage. The proposed technique, therefore, has some advantage since knowledge about the undamaged scenario for the concrete medium is not necessary to assess its integrity.

Abstract: Thanks to ultrafast acoustics, a better understanding of acoustic dynamics on a short time scale has been obtained and new characterization methods at the nanoscale have been developed. Among the materials that were studied during the development of ultrafast acoustics, nitride based heterostructures play a particular role due to their piezoelectric properties and the possibility to generate phonons with over-THz frequency and bandwidth. Here, we review some of the work performed using this type of structure, with a focus on THz phonon spectroscopy and nanoscopy. First, we present a brief description of the theory of coherent acoustic phonon generation by piezoelectric heterostructure. Then the first experimental observation of coherent acoustic phonon generated by the absorption of ultrashort light pulses in piezoelectric heterostructures is presented. From this starting point, we then present some methods developed to realize customizable phonon generation. Finally we review some more recent applications of these structures, including imaging with a nanometer resolution, broadband attenuation measurements with a frequency up to 1 THz and phononic bandgap characterization.

Abstract: Acoustic source localization techniques generally assume straight line propagation of waves from the acoustic source to the sensor. However, it is well-known that in anisotropic plates the acoustic energy does not always propagate in straight lines. Even for isotropic plates containing a cavity or an inclusion between the acoustic source and the sensor the straight line propagation assumption is violated. In such cases only options available in localizing acoustic source is to use relatively expensive distributed sensor systems, or to follow time reversal techniques based on the impulse response functions which is labor intensive and computationally demanding. A two-step hybrid technique is proposed in this paper for predicting acoustic source in anisotropic plates. During the first step it was assumed that the waves propagated along straight lines from the acoustic source to the sensor. The source was localized with this simplifying assumption. Then this first prediction was improved in the second step by solving an optimization problem. Experimental results showed that the second step always moved the estimates towards the actual source location. Thus it always reduced the prediction error irrespective of whether the final prediction coincided with the actual source location or not.

Abstract: Simultaneous application of ultrasonic vibrations during conventional materials processing (casting, welding) and material removal processes (machining) has recently been gaining widespread attention due to improvement in metallurgical quality and efficient material removal, respectively. In this paper, ultrasonic vibration-assisted laser surface melting of austenitic stainless steel (AISI 316) is reported. While the application of ultrasonic vibrations during laser processing delays the laser interaction with material due to enhancement of surface convection, it resulted in expulsion of melt from the irradiated region (forming craters) and transition from columnar to equiaxed dendritic grain structure in the resolidified melt films. Systematic investigations on the effect of ultrasonic vibrations (with vibrations frequency of 20 kHz and power output in the range of 20-40%) on the development of microstructure during laser surface melting (with laser power of 900 W and irradiation time in the range of 0.30-0.45 s) are reported. The results indicate that the proposed ultrasonic vibration-assisted laser processing can be designed for efficient material removal (laser machining) and improved equiaxed microstructure (laser surface modifications) during materials processing.

Abstract: The present paper demonstrates the applicability of a laser-ultrasonic procedure to improve the performances of train axle ultrasonic inspection. The method exploits an air-coupled ultrasonic probe that detects the ultrasonic waves generated by a high-power pulsed laser. As a result, the measurement chain is completely non-contact, from generation to detection, this making it possible to considerably speed up inspection time and make the set-up more flexible. The main advantage of the technique developed is that it works in thermo-elastic regime and it therefore can be considered as a non-destructive method. The laser-ultrasonic procedure investigated has been applied for the inspection of a real high speed train axle provided by the Italian railway company (Trenitalia), on which typical fatigue defects have been expressly created according to standard specifications. A dedicated test bench has been developed so as to rotate the axle with the angle control and to speed up the inspection of the axle surface. The laser-ultrasonic procedure proposed can be automated and is potentially suitable for regular inspection of train axles. The main achievements of the activity described in this paper are: – the study of the effective applicability of laser-ultrasonics for the diagnostic of train hollow axles with variable sections by means of a numerical FE model, – the carrying out of an automated experiment on a real train axle, – the analysis of the sensitivity to experimental parameters, like laser source – receiving probe distance and receiving probe angular position, – the demonstration that the technique is suitable for the detection of surface defects purposely created on the train axle.

Abstract: In this paper, the bandgap properties of a two-dimensional phononic crystal with the two resonators is studied and embedded in a homogenous matrix. The resonators are not connected with the matrix but linked with connectors directly. The dispersion relationship, transmission spectra, and displacement fields of the eigenmodes of this phononic crystal are studied with finite-element method. In contrast to the phononic crystals with one resonators and hollow structure, the proposed structures with two resonators can open bandgaps at lower frequencies. This is a very interesting and useful phenomenon. Results show that, the opening of the bandgaps is because of the local resonance and the scattering interaction between two resonators and matrix. An equivalent spring-pendulum model can be developed in order to evaluate the frequencies of the bandgap edge. The study in this paper is beneficial to the design of opening and tuning bandgaps in phononic crystals and isolators in low-frequency range.

Abstract: The concept of a single-beam acoustical tweezer device which can simultaneously trap microparticles at different points is proposed and demonstrated through computational simulations. The device employs an ultrasound beam produced by a circular focused transducer operating at 1 MHz in water medium. The ultrasound beam exerts a radiation force that may tweeze suspended microparticles in the medium. Simulations show that the acoustical tweezer can simultaneously trap microparticles in the pre-focal zone along the beam axis, i.e. between the transducer surface and its geometric focus. As acoustical tweezers are fast becoming a key instrument in microparticle handling, the development of acoustic multitrapping concept may turn into a useful tool in engineering these devices.

Abstract: A new T-shape piezoelectric motor using the hybrid of two orthogonal longitudinal vibrations is proposed in this work. Six pieces of PZT ceramic plates are bonded on the upside and downside surfaces of a T-shape duralumin alloy base respectively to form the proposed motor. Elliptical movement can be generated on the driving tip by applying sine and cosine voltages to the PZT elements. The horizontal displacement of the driving tip will push the runner while the vertical displacement can overcome the preload. Finite element method is used to accomplish the design and analysis process. The resonance frequencies of the two vibration modes are tuned to be close by modal analysis, while the motion trajectory of the driving tip is observed by transient analysis. After the fabrication of a prototype, the vibration characteristics and mechanical output ability are measured. The no-load speed and the maximum output thrust force of the proposed motor are tested to be 718 mm/s and 3.5 N under an exciting frequency of 53.1 kHz. The proposed T-shape piezoelectric motor exhibits merits of simple structure, easy to realize miniaturization, easy to be fabricated, and high power-to-weight ratio.

Abstract: Bubbles in an acoustic field are affected by forces such as primary and secondary Bjerknes forces, which have been shown to be influenced by acoustic pressure, frequency, bubble size and separation distance between bubbles. However, such studies are predominantly theoretical, and are mostly focused on the sign reversal of the secondary Bjerknes force. This study provides experimental data on the effect of a range of bubble sizes (8-30 μm), distances (⩽0.2 mm), acoustic pressures (20-40 kPa) and frequencies (40-100 kHz) on the relative acceleration of two approaching bubbles. Under these conditions, only variations in the magnitude of the attractive force were observed. Using coupled equations of radial and translational motions, the acceleration and secondary Bjerknes force were calculated and compared to the experimental data. The variations in the magnitude of the secondary Bjerknes forces were explained by simulating bubble radius and coupled volume oscillation as a function of time.

Abstract: Muscle imaging is a promising field of research to understand the biological and bioelectrical characteristics of muscles through the observation of muscle architectural change. Sonomyography (SMG) is a technique which can quantify the real-time architectural change of muscles under different contractions and motions with ultrasound imaging. The pennation angle and fascicle length are two crucial SMG parameters to understand the contraction mechanics at muscle level, but they have to be manually detected on ultrasound images frame by frame. In this study, we proposed an automatic method to quantitatively identify pennation angle and fascicle length of gastrocnemius (GM) muscle based on multi-resolution analysis and line feature extraction, which could overcome the limitations of tedious and time-consuming manual measurement. The method started with convolving Gabor wavelet specially designed for enhancing the line-like structure detection in GM ultrasound image. The resulting image was then used to detect the fascicles and aponeuroses for calculating the pennation angle and fascicle length with the consideration of their distribution in ultrasound image. The performance of this method was tested on computer simulated images and experimental images in vivo obtained from normal subjects. Tests on synthetic images showed that the method could identify the fascicle orientation with an average error less than 0.1°. The result of in vivo experiment showed a good agreement between the results obtained by the automatic and the manual measurements (r=0.94±0.03; p<0.001, and r=0.95±0.02, p<0.001). Furthermore, a significant correlation between the ankle angle and pennation angle (r=0.89±0.05; p<0.001) and fascicle length (r=-0.90±0.04; p<0.001) was found for the ankle plantar flexion. This study demonstrated that the proposed method was able to automatically measure the pennation angle and fascicle length of GM ultrasound images, which made it feasible to investigate muscle-level mechanics more comprehensively in vivo.

Abstract: A literature survey is presented on the radiation endurance of piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer components and complete transducer assemblies, as functions of cumulative gamma dose and neutron fluence. The most extensive data on this topic has been acquired in CANDU electrical generating stations, which use piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers manufactured commercially with minor accommodation for high radiation fields. They have been found to be reliable for cumulative gamma doses of up to approximately 2 MegaGrays; a brief summary is made of the associated accommodations required to the transducer design, and the ultimate expected failure modes. Outside of the CANDU experience, endurance data have been acquired under a diverse spectrum of operating conditions; this can impede a direct comparison of the information from different sources. Much of this data is associated with transducers immersed in liquid metal coolants associated with advanced reactor designs. Significant modifications to conventional designs have led to the availability of custom transducers that can endure well over 100 MegaGrays of cumulative gamma dose. Published data on transducer endurance against neutron fluence are reviewed, but are either insufficient, or were reported with inadequate description of test conditions, to make general conclusions on transducer endurance with high confidence. Several test projects are planned or are already underway by major laboratories and research consortia to augment the store of transducer endurance data with respect to both gamma and neutron radiation.