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Journal ArticleDOI

3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF THE GALAXY SIZE–MASS DISTRIBUTION SINCE z = 3

TL;DR: In this paper, the galaxy size-mass distribution over the redshift range 0 3 × 10{sup 9} M {sub ☉}, and steep, R{sub eff}∝M{sub ∗}{sup 0.75}, for early-type galaxies with stellar mass > 2 × 10,sup 10} M{sub ǫ, and the intrinsic scattermore is ≲0.2 dex for all galaxy types and redshifts.
Abstract: Spectroscopic+photometric redshifts, stellar mass estimates, and rest-frame colors from the 3D-HST survey are combined with structural parameter measurements from CANDELS imaging to determine the galaxy size-mass distribution over the redshift range 0 3 × 10{sup 9} M {sub ☉}, and steep, R{sub eff}∝M{sub ∗}{sup 0.75}, for early-type galaxies with stellar mass >2 × 10{sup 10} M {sub ☉}. The intrinsic scattermore » is ≲0.2 dex for all galaxy types and redshifts. For late-type galaxies, the logarithmic size distribution is not symmetric but is skewed toward small sizes: at all redshifts and masses, a tail of small late-type galaxies exists that overlaps in size with the early-type galaxy population. The number density of massive (∼10{sup 11} M {sub ☉}), compact (R {sub eff} < 2 kpc) early-type galaxies increases from z = 3 to z = 1.5-2 and then strongly decreases at later cosmic times.« less

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The current status of models that employ two leading techniques to simulate the physics of galaxy formation: semianalytic models and numerical hydrodynamic simulations is reviewed in this paper, where the authors focus on a set of observational targets that describe the evolution of the global and structural properties of galaxies from roughly cosmic high noon (z ∼ 2 − 3) to the present.
Abstract: Modeling galaxy formation in a cosmological context presents one of the greatest challenges in astrophysics today due to the vast range of scales and numerous physical processes involved. Here we review the current status of models that employ two leading techniques to simulate the physics of galaxy formation: semianalytic models and numerical hydrodynamic simulations. We focus on a set of observational targets that describe the evolution of the global and structural properties of galaxies from roughly cosmic high noon (z ∼ 2–3) to the present. Although minor discrepancies remain, overall, models show remarkable convergence among different methods and make predictions that are in qualitative agreement with observations. Modelers have converged on a core set of physical processes that are critical for shaping galaxy properties. This core set includes cosmological accretion, strong stellar-driven winds that are more efficient at low masses, black hole feedback that preferentially suppresses star formation a...

781 citations


Cites background from "3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..."

  • ...…for disks (Trujillo et al. 2006, van der Wel et al. 2014); 3) the size distribution at fixed mass is narrower for spheroids than for disks (van der Wel et al. 2014) 4) the evolution of the Tully-Fisher and Faber-Jackson relation has been relatively mild (Cappellari et al. 2009, Cenarro &…...

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  • ...…1) the size-mass relationship is considerably steeper for spheroids than for disks at all redshifts (Bernardi et al. 2010, Shen et al. 2003, van der Wel et al. 2014); 2) since z ∼ 2, the size-mass relation for spheroids has evolved much more rapidly than that for disks (Trujillo et al. 2006, van…...

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  • ...…et al. 2014); 2) since z ∼ 2, the size-mass relation for spheroids has evolved much more rapidly than that for disks (Trujillo et al. 2006, van der Wel et al. 2014); 3) the size distribution at fixed mass is narrower for spheroids than for disks (van der Wel et al. 2014) 4) the evolution of the…...

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  • ...We note that many high redshift studies present the scaling relations for galaxies divided according to whether they are star forming or quiescent, rather than spheroid or disk dominated, but this seems to make little difference to the qualitative results (van der Wel et al. 2014)....

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  • ...A striking recent observation is that, at fixed stellar mass, spheroid-dominated galaxies at z ∼ 2 have much smaller sizes and central densities higher by orders of magnitude compared to today’s (e.g. Barro et al. 2013, Trujillo et al. 2006, van der Wel et al. 2014, van Dokkum et al. 2014, 2008)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the current status of models that employ semi-analytic models and numerical hydrodynamic simulations to simulate the physics of galaxy formation and show remarkable convergence between different methods and make predictions that are in qualitative agreement with observations.
Abstract: Modeling galaxy formation in a cosmological context presents one of the greatest challenges in astrophysics today, due to the vast range of scales and numerous physical processes involved. Here we review the current status of models that employ two leading techniques to simulate the physics of galaxy formation: semi-analytic models and numerical hydrodynamic simulations. We focus on a set of observational targets that describe the evolution of the global and structural properties of galaxies from roughly Cosmic High Noon ($z\sim 2-3$) to the present. Although minor discrepancies remain, overall, models show remarkable convergence between different methods and make predictions that are in qualitative agreement with observations. Modelers seem to have converged on a core set of physical processes that are critical for shaping galaxy properties. This core set includes cosmological accretion, strong stellar-driven winds that are more efficient at low masses, black hole feedback that preferentially suppresses star formation at high masses, and structural and morphological evolution through merging and environmental processes. However, all cosmological models currently adopt phenomenological implementations of many of these core processes, which must be tuned to observations. Many details of how these diverse processes interact within a hierarchical structure formation setting remain poorly understood. Emerging multi-scale simulations are helping to bridge the gap between stellar and cosmological scales, placing models on a firmer, more physically grounded footing. Concurrently, upcoming telescope facilities will provide new challenges and constraints for models, particularly by directly constraining inflows and outflows through observations of gas in and around galaxies.

706 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors presented reduced data and data products from the 3D-HST survey, a 248-orbit HST Treasury program, which obtained WFC3 G141 grism spectroscopy in four of the five CANDELS fields: AEGIS, COSMOS, GOODS-S, and UDS, along with WFC 3 $H 140$ imaging.
Abstract: We present reduced data and data products from the 3D-HST survey, a 248-orbit HST Treasury program. The survey obtained WFC3 G141 grism spectroscopy in four of the five CANDELS fields: AEGIS, COSMOS, GOODS-S, and UDS, along with WFC3 $H_{140}$ imaging, parallel ACS G800L spectroscopy, and parallel $I_{814}$ imaging. In a previous paper (Skelton et al. 2014) we presented photometric catalogs in these four fields and in GOODS-N, the fifth CANDELS field. Here we describe and present the WFC3 G141 spectroscopic data, again augmented with data from GO-1600 in GOODS-N. The data analysis is complicated by the fact that no slits are used: all objects in the WFC3 field are dispersed, and many spectra overlap. We developed software to automatically and optimally extract interlaced 2D and 1D spectra for all objects in the Skelton et al. (2014) photometric catalogs. The 2D spectra and the multi-band photometry were fit simultaneously to determine redshifts and emission line strengths, taking the morphology of the galaxies explicitly into account. The resulting catalog has 98,663 measured redshifts and line strengths down to $JH_{IR}\leq 26$ and 22,548 with $JH_{IR}\leq 24$, where we comfortably detect continuum emission. Of this sample 5,459 galaxies are at $z>1.5$ and 9,621 are at $0.7

644 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the scaling relations of molecular gas depletion timescale (t depl) and gas to stellar mass ratio (M mol gas/M* ) of 500 star-forming galaxies near the star formation "main-sequence" with redshift, specific star-formation rate (sSFR), and stellar mass (M* ).
Abstract: We combine molecular gas masses inferred from CO emission in 500 star-forming galaxies (SFGs) between z = 0 and 3, from the IRAM-COLDGASS, PHIBSS1/2, and other surveys, with gas masses derived from Herschel far-IR dust measurements in 512 galaxy stacks over the same stellar mass/redshift range. We constrain the scaling relations of molecular gas depletion timescale (t depl) and gas to stellar mass ratio (M mol gas/M* ) of SFGs near the star formation "main-sequence" with redshift, specific star-formation rate (sSFR), and stellar mass (M* ). The CO- and dust-based scaling relations agree remarkably well. This suggests that the CO → H2 mass conversion factor varies little within ±0.6 dex of the main sequence (sSFR(ms, z, M *)), and less than 0.3 dex throughout this redshift range. This study builds on and strengthens the results of earlier work. We find that t depl scales as (1 + z)–0.3 × (sSFR/sSFR(ms, z, M *))–0.5, with little dependence on M *. The resulting steep redshift dependence of M mol gas/M * ≈ (1 + z)3 mirrors that of the sSFR and probably reflects the gas supply rate. The decreasing gas fractions at high M* are driven by the flattening of the SFR-M * relation. Throughout the probed redshift range a combination of an increasing gas fraction and a decreasing depletion timescale causes a larger sSFR at constant M *. As a result, galaxy integrated samples of the M mol gas-SFR rate relation exhibit a super-linear slope, which increases with the range of sSFR. With these new relations it is now possible to determine M mol gas with an accuracy of ±0.1 dex in relative terms, and ±0.2 dex including systematic uncertainties.

637 citations


Cites background from "3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..."

  • ...In a recent evaluation of star forming disk sizes in CANDELS/3D HST between z=0 and 3 van der Wel et al. (2014) find empirically β= -0.75 (±0.05), which is smaller than β= -0.83 but comes close to it....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The 3D-HST Treasury Program as mentioned in this paper has been used for the 3D design of the HST's three-dimensional (3D) HST-HWST array.
Abstract: NASA [NAS5-26555]; NASA through Hubble Fellowship - Space Telescope Science Institute [HST-HF-51318.001, HST-HF2-51368]; 3D-HST Treasury Program [GO 12177, 12328]; NASA/ESA HST [GO 11600, GO 13420]

614 citations


Cites background or methods from "3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..."

  • ...Step 9 is described in van der Wel et al. (2014), who measured the structural parameters of objects in the J125 and H160 WFC3 bands....

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  • ...These datasets, together with structural parameters and star formation rates presented elsewhere (van der Wel et al. 2014; Whitaker et al. 2014), accomplish an important goal of observational extragalactic astronomy: a census of stars and star formation in reasonably bright galaxies out to z ∼ 2.5....

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  • ...…et al. (2013b) and Patel et al. (2013) describe the evolution of Milky Way like galaxies from z ∼ 2.5 to the present, using number density-matched samples. van der Wel et al. (2014) combine the 3D-HST catalogs with CANDELS photometry to study the evolution of the masssize relation with redshift....

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References
More filters
Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the spectral evolution of stellar populations at ages between 100,000 yr and 20 Gyr at a resolution of 3 A across the whole wavelength range from 3200 to 9500 A for a wide range of metallicities.
Abstract: We present a new model for computing the spectral evolution of stellar populations at ages between 100,000 yr and 20 Gyr at a resolution of 3 A across the whole wavelength range from 3200 to 9500 A for a wide range of metallicities. These predictions are based on a newly available library of observed stellar spectra. We also compute the spectral evolution across a larger wavelength range, from 91 A to 160 micron, at lower resolution. The model incorporates recent progress in stellar evolution theory and an observationally motivated prescription for thermally-pulsing stars on the asymptotic giant branch. The latter is supported by observations of surface brightness fluctuations in nearby stellar populations. We show that this model reproduces well the observed optical and near-infrared colour-magnitude diagrams of Galactic star clusters of various ages and metallicities. Stochastic fluctuations in the numbers of stars in different evolutionary phases can account for the full range of observed integrated colours of star clusters in the Magellanic Clouds. The model reproduces in detail typical galaxy spectra from the Early Data Release (EDR) of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). We exemplify how this type of spectral fit can constrain physical parameters such as the star formation history, metallicity and dust content of galaxies. Our model is the first to enable accurate studies of absorption-line strengths in galaxies containing stars over the full range of ages. Using the highest-quality spectra of the SDSS EDR, we show that this model can reproduce simultaneously the observed strengths of those Lick indices that do not depend strongly on element abundance ratios [abridged].

10,384 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A review of the present-day mass function and initial mass function in various components of the Galaxy (disk, spheroid, young, and globular clusters) and in conditions characteristic of early star formation is presented in this paper.
Abstract: We review recent determinations of the present-day mass function (PDMF) and initial mass function (IMF) in various components of the Galaxy—disk, spheroid, young, and globular clusters—and in conditions characteristic of early star formation. As a general feature, the IMF is found to depend weakly on the environment and to be well described by a power-law form forM , and a lognormal form below, except possibly for m!1 early star formation conditions. The disk IMF for single objects has a characteristic mass around M , m!0.08 c and a variance in logarithmic mass , whereas the IMF for multiple systems hasM , and . j!0.7 m!0.2 j!0.6 c The extension of the single MF into the brown dwarf regime is in good agreement with present estimates of L- and T-dwarf densities and yields a disk brown dwarf number density comparable to the stellar one, n!n! BD " pc !3 .T he IMF of young clusters is found to be consistent with the disk fi eld IMF, providing the same correction 0.1 for unresolved binaries, confirming the fact that young star clusters and disk field stars represent the same stellar population. Dynamical effects, yielding depletion of the lowest mass objects, are found to become consequential for ages!130 Myr. The spheroid IMF relies on much less robust grounds. The large metallicity spread in the local subdwarf photometric sample, in particular, remains puzzling. Recent observations suggest that there is a continuous kinematic shear between the thick-disk population, present in local samples, and the genuine spheroid one. This enables us to derive only an upper limit for the spheroid mass density and IMF. Within all the uncertainties, the latter is found to be similar to the one derived for globular clusters and is well represented also by a lognormal form with a characteristic mass slightly larger than for the disk, M , ,e xcluding as ignif icant population of m!0.2-0.3 c brown dwarfs in globular clusters and in the spheroid. The IMF characteristic of early star formation at large redshift remains undetermined, but different observational constraints suggest that it does not extend below!1M , .T hese results suggest a characteristic mass for star formation that decreases with time, from conditions prevailing at large redshift to conditions characteristic of the spheroid (or thick disk) to present-day conditions.Theseconclusions,however, remain speculative, given the large uncertainties in the spheroid and early star IMF determinations. These IMFs allow a reasonably robust determination of the Galactic present-day and initial stellar and brown dwarf contents. They also have important galactic implications beyond the Milky Way in yielding more accurate mass-to-light ratio determinations. The mass-to-light ratios obtained with the disk and the spheroid IMF yield values 1.8-1.4 times smaller than for a Salpeter IMF, respectively, in agreement with various recent dynamical determinations. This general IMF determination is examined in the context of star formation theory. None of the theories based on a Jeans-type mechanism, where fragmentation is due only to gravity, can fulfill all the observational constraints on star formation and predict a large number of substellar objects. On the other hand, recent numerical simulations of compressible turbulence, in particular in super-Alfvenic conditions, seem to reproduce both qualitatively and quantitatively the stellar and substellar IMF and thus provide an appealing theoretical foundation. In this picture, star formation is induced by the dissipation of large-scale turbulence to smaller scales through radiative MHD shocks, producing filamentary structures. These shocks produce local nonequilibrium structures with large density contrasts, which collapse eventually in gravitationally bound objects under the combined influence of turbulence and gravity. The concept of a single Jeans mass is replaced by a distribution of local Jeans masses, representative of the lognormal probability density function of the turbulent gas. Objects below the mean thermal Jeans mass still have a possibility to collapse, although with a decreasing probability.

8,218 citations


"3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...Finally, we use AB magnitudes and the Chabrier (2003) stellar initial mass function....

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01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: Peebles as discussed by the authors argues that the evolution of the early universe went from a nearly uniform initial state to a progressively more irregular and clumpy universe, based on the largest known structures of the universe.
Abstract: Opinions on the large-scale structure of the early universe range widely from primeval chaos to a well-ordered mass distribution. P.J.E. Peebles argues that the evolution proceeded from a nearly uniform initial state to a progressively more irregular and clumpy universe. The discussion centers on the largest known structures, the clusters of galaxies, the empirical evidence of the nature of the clustering, and the theories of how the clustering evolves in an expanding universe. In Chapter One the author provides an historical introduction to the subject. Chapter Two contains a survey of methods used to deal with the Newtonian approximation to the theory of the evolution of the mass distribution. Recent progress in the use of statistical measures of the clustering is described in Chapter Three. Chapters Four and Five return to techniques for dealing with cosmic evolution, in the statistical measures of clustering and under general relativity theory. Lastly, in Chapter Six Professor Peebles assesses the progress in attempts to link theory and observation to arrive at a well established physical picture of the nature and evolution of the universe.

4,288 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
10 Feb 2005-Nature
TL;DR: Simulations that simultaneously follow star formation and the growth of black holes during galaxy–galaxy collisions find that, in addition to generating a burst of star formation, a merger leads to strong inflows that feed gas to the supermassive black hole and thereby power the quasar.
Abstract: In the early Universe, while galaxies were still forming, black holes as massive as a billion solar masses powered quasars. Supermassive black holes are found at the centres of most galaxies today, where their masses are related to the velocity dispersions of stars in their host galaxies and hence to the mass of the central bulge of the galaxy. This suggests a link between the growth of the black holes and their host galaxies, which has indeed been assumed for a number of years. But the origin of the observed relation between black hole mass and stellar velocity dispersion, and its connection with the evolution of galaxies, have remained unclear. Here we report simulations that simultaneously follow star formation and the growth of black holes during galaxy-galaxy collisions. We find that, in addition to generating a burst of star formation, a merger leads to strong inflows that feed gas to the supermassive black hole and thereby power the quasar. The energy released by the quasar expels enough gas to quench both star formation and further black hole growth. This determines the lifetime of the quasar phase (approaching 100 million years) and explains the relationship between the black hole mass and the stellar velocity dispersion.

3,330 citations


"3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..." refers background in this paper

  • ...One possibility is that a substantial amount of material flows to the center under the influence of mergers (e.g., Di Matteo et al. 2005) or violently unstable disks and clump formation/migration (Dekel et al. 2009; Ceverino et al. 2010; Dekel & Burkert 2014)....

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01 Jan 1992

2,867 citations


"3D-HST+CANDELS: THE EVOLUTION OF TH..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...2005) and the fast evolution of UV-selected galaxies at z > 2 (Giavalisco et al. 1996; Ferguson et al. 2004; Oesch et al. 2010; Mosleh et al. 2012). Our data set allows us to bridge these regimes and probe the origin of this difference. In Figure 12 we show the size evolution of galaxies with stellar mass M∗ ∼ 10(10) M from the present day up to z ∼ 6. Here we have relaxed our magnitude limit to HF160W = 26, which is still within the completeness limit of the CANDELS imaging as can be seen in Figure 2. Size measurements of individual galaxies are no longer reliable at HF160W = 26, but the sample average is still robust to within 15% (van der Wel et al. 2012). For galaxies bluer than U−V = 1, thus selecting a population akin to LBGs we probe the population out to z ∼ 6. The median size evolves quickly with redshift, Reff ∝ (1 + z)−1.1, consistent with recent measurements by Oesch et al. (2010) and Mosleh et al....

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  • ...2005) and the fast evolution of UV-selected galaxies at z > 2 (Giavalisco et al. 1996; Ferguson et al. 2004; Oesch et al. 2010; Mosleh et al. 2012). Our data set allows us to bridge these regimes and probe the origin of this difference. In Figure 12 we show the size evolution of galaxies with stellar mass M∗ ∼ 10(10) M from the present day up to z ∼ 6. Here we have relaxed our magnitude limit to HF160W = 26, which is still within the completeness limit of the CANDELS imaging as can be seen in Figure 2. Size measurements of individual galaxies are no longer reliable at HF160W = 26, but the sample average is still robust to within 15% (van der Wel et al. 2012). For galaxies bluer than U−V = 1, thus selecting a population akin to LBGs we probe the population out to z ∼ 6. The median size evolves quickly with redshift, Reff ∝ (1 + z)−1.1, consistent with recent measurements by Oesch et al. (2010) and Mosleh et al. (2012). Once we include all late-type galaxies, regardless of color, the evolution matches that of the U−V < 1 galaxies at z 2....

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  • ...The zero-th order expectation is that disk scale lengths evolve fast, approximately as the inverse of the Hubble parameter (Mo, Mao & White 1998), and early and recent work on the average sizes of Lyman Break Galaxies (LBGs) at high redshifts (z ∼ 2 − 6) roughly agree with this expectation for a ΛCDM cosmology: Giavalisco et al. (1996), Ferguson et al. (2004), Oesch et al....

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  • ...The zero-th order expectation is that disk scale lengths evolve fast, approximately as the inverse of the Hubble parameter (Mo, Mao & White 1998), and early and recent work on the average sizes of Lyman Break Galaxies (LBGs) at high redshifts (z ∼ 2 − 6) roughly agree with this expectation for a ΛCDM cosmology: Giavalisco et al. (1996), Ferguson et al. (2004), Oesch et al. (2010), and Mosleh et al....

    [...]

  • ...The zero-th order expectation is that disk scale lengths evolve fast, approximately as the inverse of the Hubble parameter (Mo, Mao & White 1998), and early and recent work on the average sizes of Lyman Break Galaxies (LBGs) at high redshifts (z ∼ 2 − 6) roughly agree with this expectation for a ΛCDM cosmology: Giavalisco et al. (1996), Ferguson et al. (2004), Oesch et al. (2010), and Mosleh et al. (2012) all find rapid size evolution with redshift: Reff ∝ (1 + z)β=−1.1. In contrast, the average size at a given stellar mass of the population of disk-dominated galaxies evolves slowly at late times (z 1) has been reported to evolve slowly as measured at fixed galaxy mass (β = −0.2) or not at all (Lilly et al. 1998; Ravindranath et al. 2004; Barden et al. 2005). The implication would be that the evolution of the disk galaxy population is decoupled from the evolution of the dark matter halo population. One fundamental difference between the results on LBGs and lower-redshift disk galaxies is the rest-frame wavelength at which the sizes are measured: the rest-frame UV light seen for LBGs originates from young stars that may be, and are generally expected to be, distributed differently than bulk of baryonic and stellar mass, not to mention the consequences of extinction. The advent of ground-based near-infrared imaging surveys helped to bridge the z < 1 and z > 2 regimes by enabling size measurements in a consistent manner at a fixed rest-frame wavelength. Early results suggested slow evolution for late-type galaxies up to z ∼ 3 (Trujillo et al. 2006a), but the uncertainties at z > 1 were such that evolution in that regime was not strongly constrained. Later ground-based work pointed at faster evolution at a fixed galaxy mass: Franx et al. (2008) found β = −0....

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