A comparative study of tensile properties of non-crimp 3D orthogonal weave and multi-layer plain weave E-glass composites. Part 1: Materials, methods and principal results
01 Aug 2009-Composites Part A-applied Science and Manufacturing (Elsevier)-Vol. 40, Iss: 8, pp 1134-1143
TL;DR: In this article, a comparison of in-plane tensile properties of two single-ply non-crimp 3D orthogonal weave E-glass fiber composites on one side and a laminate reinforced with four plies of plain weave Eglass fabric on the other is presented.
Abstract: Composites fabricated by VARTM technology with the use of single-ply non-crimp 3D orthogonal woven preforms 3WEAVE ® find fast growing research interest and industrial applications. It is now well understood and appreciated that this type of advanced composites provides efficient delamination suppression, enhanced damage tolerance, and superior impact, ballistic and blast performance characteristics over 2D fabric laminates. At the same time, this type of composites, having practically straight in-plane fibers, show significantly better in-plane stiffness and strength properties than respective properties of a “conventional” type 3D interlock weave composites. One primarily important question, which has not been addressed yet, is how the in-plane elastic and strength characteristics of this type of composites compare with respective in-plane properties of “equivalent” laminates made of 2D woven fabrics. This 2-part paper presents a comprehensive experimental study of the comparison of in-plane tensile properties of two single-ply non-crimp 3D orthogonal weave E-glass fiber composites on one side and a laminate reinforced with four plies of plain weave E-glass fabric on the other. Results obtained from mechanical testing are supplemented by acoustic emission data providing damage initiation thresholds, progressive cracks observation, full-field surface strain mapping and cracks observation on micrographs. The obtained results demonstrate that the studied 3D non-crimp orthogonal woven composites have considerably higher in-plane ultimate failure stresses and strains, as well as damage initiation strain thresholds than their 2D woven laminated composite counterpart. Part 1 presents the description of materials used, experimental techniques applied, principal results and their mutual comparisons for the three tested composites. Part 2 describes in detail the experimentally observed effects and trends with the main focus on the progressive damage: detailed results of AE registration, full-field strain measurements and progressive damage observations, highlighting peculiarities of local damage patterns and explaining the succession of local damage events, which leads to the differences in strength values between 2D and 3D composites.
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TL;DR: In this article, the effect of different factors on LVI performance of FRC, identify the gap in the literature and suggest directions for future work in this area, in addition to different damage modeling strategies used to predict the impact resistance and damage tolerance.
194 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, peak amplitude and peak frequency were selected as the best cluster-definition features from nine AE parameters by Laplacian score and correlation analysis, principal component analysis and k-means++ algorithm and repeatability and similarity analysis of the clusters in AE registration of different specimens.
174 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the tensile, compressive, and flexural performance of six types of 3D woven carbon-fibre/epoxy composites which were manufactured using a traditional narrow fabric weaving loom and resin transfer molding was investigated.
Abstract: This paper presents a comprehensive study on the tensile, compressive, and flexural performance of six types of 3D woven carbon-fibre/epoxy composites which were manufactured using a traditional narrow fabric weaving loom and resin transfer moulding Four orthogonal and two angle-interlock weaves were tested with the primary loading direction parallel to the warp direction The mechanical performance was found to be affected by the distribution of resin rich regions and the waviness of the load-carrying fibres, which were determined by the fibre architectures The binding points within the resin rich regions were found to be the damage initiation sites in all weave types under all loading conditions, which were confirmed with both visual observation and digital image correlation strain maps Among all weave types, the angle interlock weave W-3 exhibited the highest properties under all loading conditions
155 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a comparative experimental study of 2D and 3D woven glass/epoxy composites under in-plane tensile loading is presented, where the results demonstrate that the non-crimp 3D orthogonal woven composites have significantly higher inplane strengths, failure strains and damage initiation thresholds than their 2D woven laminated counterpart.
Abstract: This Part 2 paper presents results of comparative experimental study of progressive damage in 2D and 3D woven glass/epoxy composites under in-plane tensile loading. As Part 1, this Part 2 work is focused on the comparison of in-plane tensile properties of two non-crimp single-ply 3D orthogonal weave E-glass fibre composites on one side and a laminate reinforced with four plies of E-glass plain weave on the other. The damage investigation methodology combines mechanical testing with acoustic emission registration (that provides damage initiation thresholds), progressive cracks observation on transparent samples, full-field surface strain mapping and cracks observation on micrographs, altogether enabling for a thorough characterisation of the local micro- and meso-damage modes of the studied composites. The obtained results demonstrate that the non-crimp 3D orthogonal woven composites have significantly higher in-plane strengths, failure strains and damage initiation thresholds than their 2D woven laminated counterpart. The growth of transverse cracks in the yarns of 3D composites is delayed, and they are less prone to a yarn–matrix interfacial crack formation and propagation. Delaminations developing between the plies of plain weave fabric in the laminate at certain load level never appear in the 3D woven single-ply composites.
152 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the internal geometry of a carbon fiber non-crimp 3D orthogonal woven composite is presented, including: waviness of yarns, cross sections of the yarn, dimensions of yarn cross sections, and local fiber volume fraction.
Abstract: Measurements of the internal geometry of a carbon fiber non-crimp 3D orthogonal woven composite are presented, including: waviness of the yarns, cross sections of the yarns, dimensions of the yarn cross sections, and local fiber volume fraction. The measured waviness of warp and fill yarns are well below 0.1%, which shows that the fabric termed here “non-crimp” has nearly straight in-plane fibers as-produced, and this feature is maintained after going through all steps of fabric handling and composite manufacturing. The variability of dimensions of the yarns is in the range of 4–8% for warp and fill directions, while the variability of the yarn spacing is in the range of 3–4%. These variability parameters are lower than respective ranges of variability of the yarn waviness and the cross-sectional dimensions in typical carbon 2D weave and 3D interlock weave composites, which are also illustrated in this work for comparison.
126 citations
References
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TL;DR: The software package WiseTex as mentioned in this paper implements a generalised description of internal structure of textile reinforcements on the unit cell level, integrated with mechanical models of the relaxed and deformed state of 2D and 3D-woven, two-and three-axial braided, weft-knitted and non-crimp warp-knit stitched fabrics and laminates.
418 citations
Book•
20 Nov 2002
TL;DR: In this paper, the 3D Fibre Preforms (3D FRP composites) were modeled for 3D woven composites and knitted composites, including Braided Composite Materials and Knitted Composite Materials.
Abstract: Introduction: Background Introduction to 3D FRP composites Manufacture of 3D Fibre Preforms: Weaving Braiding Knitting Stitching Preform Consolidation Liquid moulding techniques Resin selection Tooling Component quality. Micromechanics Models for Mechanical Properties: Fundamentals in micromechanics Unit cell models for 2D woven composites Models for 3D woven composites Unit cell models for braided and knitted composites. 3D Woven Composites: Microstructural properties of 3D woven composites In-plane mechanical properties of 3D woven composites Interlaminar fracture properties of 3D woven composites 3D woven distance fabric composites. Braided Composite Materials: In-plane mechanical properties Fracture toughness and damage performance Fatigue performance Modelling of braided composites. Knitted Composite Materials: In-plane mechanical properties Interlaminar fracture toughness Impact performance Modelling of knitted composites. Stitched Composites: The Stitching process Mechanical properties of stitched composites Interlaminar properties of stitched composites Stitched composite joints. Z-Pinned Composites Fabrication of Z-pinned composites Mechanical properties of Z-pinned composites Delamination resistance and damage tolerance of Z-pinned composites Z-Pinned sandwich composites.
413 citations
"A comparative study of tensile prop..." refers background in this paper
...An extensive summary of problems with manufacturing multi-layer 3D interlock weaves on conventional 2D weaving looms, and associated lack of consistency and low quality of the products, can be found in [26]....
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01 Jan 2005
398 citations
"A comparative study of tensile prop..." refers methods in this paper
...Geometric model of this preform, constructed using KU Leuven software [37], is shown in Fig....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors estimate the elastic moduli at which the first failure events occur in compression or tension, based on existing micromechanical models, which is a direct measure of damage tolerance and notch insensitivity.
Abstract: Observations of failure mechanisms in monotonic loading are reported for graphite/epoxy composites containing three-dimensional (3D) interlock weave reinforcement. The key phenomena are delamination and kink band formation in compression, tow rupture and pullout in tension, and combinations of these in bending. The materials exhibit great potential for damage tolerance and notch insensitivity. This is partly due to the presence of geometrical flaws that are broadly distributed in strength and space; and partly to the coarseness of the reinforcing tows, which leads to extensive debonding and reduced stress intensification around sites of failure. Rules of mixture corrected for the effects of tow irregularity suffice to estimate elastic moduli. Rough estimates of the stress at which the first failure events occur in compression or tension can be made from existing micromechanical models. Ultimate tensile failure might be modeled by regarding failed tows that are being pulled out of the composite as a cohesive zone. The characteristic length estimated for this zone, which is a direct measure of damage tolerance and notch insensitivity, has very large values of order of magnitude 0.1–0.5 m.
258 citations
"A comparative study of tensile prop..." refers background in this paper
...One significant drawback of the process of weaving multilayer fabrics on conventional 2D weaving machines is a high level of interlacing; this leads, in turn, to a high degree of fiber crimp or waviness, which negatively affect the properties of the composites, as discussed and illustrated in many publications, see for example [23–25]....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the mechanical performance of various 3D woven composites (monolithic and sandwich) by comparison of in-plane properties (stiffness and strength), damage tolerance, energy absorption capability and fracture mechanical properties is presented.
193 citations
"A comparative study of tensile prop..." refers background or result in this paper
...As authors of [33] noticed, the most surprising fact to them was that advanced 3D weave composite showed superior to the 2D weave baseline laminate even in respect of tensile properties....
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...Authors of [33] had suggested, and then substantiated by experimental data, that ‘‘the weaving process used had a tremendous influence on composite properties”....
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...Since that pioneering study [31] there were only three known papers [32–34], where the difference in properties between 3D non-crimp weave and 3D interlock weave composites was further studied and discussed....
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