A comparison of the social postures of some common laboratory rodents.
TL;DR: A number of general concepts are discussed, for example the relation of convulsions to flight behaviour, the reduction of incoming aggressive stimuli in submissive postures, "Cut-Off", and the inhibition of biting in the more social species.
Abstract: This paper describes elements in the social behaviour of the laboratory rat, mouse, hamster and Guinea-pig. These elements are divided into postures, which are static, and acts, which involve movement. A total of 45 of these elements are mentioned, most of which are common, with only slight modification, to all four species. Apart from these the guinea pig differs in not having a true Upright Posture and also in showing a male sexul display "Rumba". The postures are classified under broad motivational headings. A number of general concepts are discussed, for example the relation of convulsions to flight behaviour, the reduction of incoming aggressive stimuli in submissive postures, "Cut-Off", and the inhibition of biting in the more social species.
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TL;DR: A new standardized procedure to quantitate sociability and preference for social novelty in mice provides a method to assess tendencies for social avoidance in mouse models of autism.
Abstract: Deficits in social interaction are important early markers for autism and related neurodevelopmental disorders with strong genetic components. Standardized behavioral assays that measure the preference of mice for initiating social interactions with novel conspecifics would be of great value for mutant mouse models of autism. We developed a new procedure to assess sociability and the preference for social novelty in mice. To quantitate sociability, each mouse was scored on measures of exploration in a central habituated area, a side chamber containing an unfamiliar conspecific (stranger 1) in a wire cage, or an empty side chamber. In a secondary test, preference for social novelty was quantitated by presenting the test mouse with a choice between the first, now-familiar, conspecific (stranger 1) in one side chamber, and a second unfamiliar mouse (stranger 2) in the other side chamber. Parameters scored included time spent in each chamber and number of entries into the chambers. Five inbred strains of mice were tested, C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, FVB/NJ, A/J and B6129PF2/J hybrids. Four strains showed significant levels of sociability (spend- ing more time in the chamber containing stranger 1 than in the empty chamber) and a preference for social novelty (spending more time in the chamber containing stranger 2 than in the chamber containing the now-familiar stranger 1). These social preferences were observed in both male and female mice, and in juveniles and adults. The exception was A/J, a strain that demonstrated a preference for the central chamber. Results are discussed in terms of potential applications of the new methods, and the proper controls for the interpretation of social behavior data, including assays for health, relevant sensory abilities and motor functions. This new standardized procedure to quantitate sociability and preference for social novelty in mice provides a method to assess tendencies for social avoidance in mouse models of autism.
1,232 citations
Cites background from "A comparison of the social postures..."
...Mice are a highly social species (Blanchard et al. 2003; Grant & MacIntosh 1963; Laviola & Terranova 1998; Scott & Fredericson 1951; Valzelli 1973; Vandenbergh 1989; Winslow & Insel 2002)....
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TL;DR: It is demonstrated that mice without 5-HT1A receptors display decreased exploratory activity and increased fear of aversive environments (open or elevated spaces) and suggested that reductions in 5- HT1A receptor density due to genetic defects or environmental stressors might result in heightened anxiety.
Abstract: To investigate the contribution of individual serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) receptors to mood control, we have used homologous recombination to generate mice lacking specific serotonergic receptor subtypes. In the present report, we demonstrate that mice without 5-HT1A receptors display decreased exploratory activity and increased fear of aversive environments (open or elevated spaces). 5-HT1A knockout mice also exhibited a decreased immobility in the forced swim test, an effect commonly associated with antidepressant treatment. Although 5-HT1A receptors are involved in controlling the activity of serotonergic neurons, 5-HT1A knockout mice had normal levels of 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, possibly because of an up-regulation of 5-HT1B autoreceptors. Heterozygote 5-HT1A mutants expressed approximately one-half of wild-type receptor density and displayed intermediate phenotypes in most behavioral tests. These results demonstrate that 5-HT1A receptors are involved in the modulation of exploratory and fear-related behaviors and suggest that reductions in 5-HT1A receptor density due to genetic defects or environmental stressors might result in heightened anxiety.
816 citations
TL;DR: There appears to be a remarkable unity in frontal cortex function across the class mammalia, and it is proposed that the principal function of the prefrontal cortex of mammals is the temporal organization of behavior.
801 citations
TL;DR: The present data suggest that a combination of the novel “zero-maze” design and a detailed ethological analysis provides a sensitive model for the detection of anxiolytic/anxiogenic drug action.
Abstract: The elevated “zero-maze” is a modification of the elevated plus-maze model of anxiety in rats which incorporates both traditional and novel ethological measures in the analysis of drug effects. The novel design comprises an elevated annular platform with two opposite enclosed quadrants and two open, removing any ambiguity in interpretation of time spent on the central square of the traditional design and allowing uninterrupted exploration. Using this model, the reference benzodiazepine anxiolytics, diazepam (0.125–0.5 mg/kg) and chlordiazepoxide (0.5–2.0 mg/kg) significantly increased the percentage of time spent in the open quadrants (% TO) and the frequency of head dips over the edge of the platform (HDIPS), and reduced the frequency of stretched attend postures (SAP) from the closed to open quadrants. In contrast, the anxiogenic drugm-chlorophenyl-piperazine (mCPP; 0.25–1.0 mg/kg) induced the opposite effects, decreasing %TO and HDIPS, and increasing SAP. The 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT; 0.001–0.1 mg/kg) had no effects on either %TO or HDIPS, but did decrease SAP at 0.01 mg/kg although not at higher or lower doses. Similarly, the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, ondansetron (0.0001–1.0 mg/kg) decreased SAP and increased %TO at 0.01 mg/kg, but not at other doses. The present data suggest that a combination of the novel “zero-maze” design and a detailed ethological analysis provides a sensitive model for the detection of anxiolytic/anxiogenic drug action.
697 citations
Cites background from "A comparison of the social postures..."
...The behavioural element "stretched attend" was originally described in the context of social interaction and classified as an ambivalent element reflecting an approach-avoidance tendency (Grant and Mackintosh 1963)....
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TL;DR: Robust and selective social deficits, repetitive self‐grooming, genetic stability and commercial availability of the BTBR inbred strain encourage its use as a research tool to search for background genes relevant to the etiology of autism, and to explore therapeutics to treat the core symptoms.
Abstract: Autism is a behaviorally defined neurodevelopmental disorder of unknown etiology. Mouse models with face validity to the core symptoms offer an experimental approach to test hypotheses about the causes of autism and translational tools to evaluate potential treatments. We discovered that the inbred mouse strain BTBR T+tf/J (BTBR) incorporates multiple behavioral phenotypes relevant to all three diagnostic symptoms of autism. BTBR displayed selectively reduced social approach, low reciprocal social interactions and impaired juvenile play, as compared with C57BL/6J (B6) controls. Impaired social transmission of food preference in BTBR suggests communication deficits. Repetitive behaviors appeared as high levels of self-grooming by juvenile and adult BTBR mice. Comprehensive analyses of procedural abilities confirmed that social recognition and olfactory abilities were normal in BTBR, with no evidence for high anxiety-like traits or motor impairments, supporting an interpretation of highly specific social deficits. Database comparisons between BTBR and B6 on 124 putative autism candidate genes showed several interesting single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the BTBR genetic background, including a nonsynonymous coding region polymorphism in Kmo. The Kmo gene encodes kynurenine 3-hydroxylase, an enzyme-regulating metabolism of kynurenic acid, a glutamate antagonist with neuroprotective actions. Sequencing confirmed this coding SNP in Kmo, supporting further investigation into the contribution of this polymorphism to autism-like behavioral phenotypes. Robust and selective social deficits, repetitive self-grooming, genetic stability and commercial availability of the BTBR inbred strain encourage its use as a research tool to search for background genes relevant to the etiology of autism, and to explore therapeutics to treat the core symptoms.
697 citations
Cites methods from "A comparison of the social postures..."
...Parameters of juvenile mouse social behaviors were chosen from the established literature (Grant & Mackintosh 1963; Terranova & Laviola 2005; Terranova et al. 1993, 1998)....
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TL;DR: It is suggested that there are two main Flight pathways, one leading to a Submissive Posture and the other to Crouch or Retreat, the occurrence of these is related to two types of behaviour seen in the wild, intra-colonial and territorial.
Abstract: An analysis is made of the social behaviour of the male laboratory rat using the following methods. One rat is introduced into the home cage of another. One observer records the series of elements shown by each rat. These results are tabulated in sequence tables of elements. The tables are analysed by calculating an "expected" value for each cell and comparing this with the observed value. An ethogram is built up showing the relationships of the elements seen when the rats are close together and indicating the possible motivation of these elements in terms of the interaction of Aggression and Flight. It is shown that the Flight motivated elements fall into two groups, one leading to Crouch and the other leading to Submissive Posture. The occurrence of grooming and digging as displacement activities is shown and is contrasted to the occurrence of mounting which appears to be separately aroused in male-male situations. A group of elements occurring when the rats are at a distance from each other, and showing conflict between approach and avoidance, is described. It is suggested that there are two main Flight pathways, one leading to a Submissive Posture and the other to Crouch or Retreat, the occurrence of these is related to two types of behaviour seen in the wild, intra-colonial and territorial. Finally, the possible occurrence of an Approach component other than Aggression or Mating, which might be called a social drive, is suggested.
448 citations
TL;DR: A small number of experiments with R. rattus showed that this species possesses all the components of amicable and aggressive behaviour observed in R. norvegicus, but that it is less fierce and more agile.
Abstract: SUMMARY
Wild rats (Battus norvegicus Berkenhout and R. rattus L.) were kept in large cages fitted with nest boxes and supplied with excess food and water. Colonies varied in size from four to twenty rats, and were usually maintained for at least nine weeks. The rats were individually identified and their behaviour studied in detail.
Rattus norvegicus. In all-male colonies there was a low mortality and most of the rats increased in weight. In colonies containing both males and females, mortality was high among the males, very low among the females; most of the males declined in weight, though some grew well. There was however no fighting for females. It is suggested that the extra fighting which took place in these colonies resembled displacement behaviour and was due to excitement evoked by the presence of females combined with frequent frustration.
There were no deaths in all-female colonies, or in colonies of litter mates. Unless parturient, normal females did not display aggressive behaviour except in ‘play’.
Males, but not females, added to established colonies, were attacked by resident males and usually died, sometimes within a few hours and often without visible injury.
At the beginning of an experiment there was much exploration, both of the cage and of the other rats. Social relationships were established early. Male members of the colonies fell into three classes: (i) alphas, which were the equals or superiors of other males in the colony, and attacked newcomers; (ii) betas, which adapted themselves to a subordinate role, and were ingratiating towards newcomers; (iii) omegas, which were persecuted by one or more alphas and soon died. Alphas and betas gained in weight; omegas lost weight. There were more omegas in male-female colonies than in those consisting only of males. Amicable behaviour (apart from coitus and care of young) was shown by both sexes and was based mainly on contact ‘releasing’ stimuli: the most specific of a number of amicable responses was crawling under the belly of another rat. Fighting involved a series of stereotyped acts, including tooth chattering and a characteristic threat posture; there was much wild leaping, but biting produced only superficial damage.
Rattus rattus. A small number of experiments with R. rattus showed that this species possesses all the components of amicable and aggressive behaviour observed in R. norvegicus, but that it is less fierce and more agile. There was no evidence of extra conflict in male-female colonies. All-male colonies containing both species were usually peaceful. R. rattus of either sex added to norvegicus colonies were usually attacked, but not with such intensity or consistency as were male norvegicus; if attacked, they died. R. norvegicus males added to rattus colonies were sometimes attacked, but they did not die.
Displacement behaviour and abnormaľ sexual and aggressive behaviour were observed in both species.
General. There is no reason to think that dominance hierarchies ever develop in wild rat colonies. Members of a single family do not attack each other. The fighting of wild rats is essentially territorial, not for any specific object. Aggression is most readily evoked in males established in a familiar area, faced with a strange adult male of the same species. In normal females aggression occurs only in defence of a nest containing young. Social responses consist of stereotyped behaviour patterns which are probably innate; but learning plays an important part in determining the choice of response and in secondary adjustments of behaviour to particular circumstances.
231 citations
TL;DR: W Wanderratten besteht eine sehr ausgesprochene Rangordnung, wird die Aufstellung von Normen vorgeschlagen, denen grosere Erfahrungskreise zugrunde liegen musten.
Abstract: Zusammenfassung
Unter nicht miteinander verwandten Wanderratten besteht eine sehr ausgesprochene Rangordnung. Bei der Paarbildung verbinden sich die Weibchen nur mit in der Rangordnung hoherstehenden Mannchen. Jedes Paar behauptet ein bestimmtes Revier und verteidigt es gegen fremde Ratten auf das heftigste.
Die Nachkommen desPaares aber bleiben, falls die Nahrung ausreicht, im gleichen Revier, ebenso deren Nachkommen usw. Sie bilden zusammen ein Rudel.
Innerhalb des Rudels gibt es keine Rangordnung; die jungeren Tiere sind durch ihre grosere Aktivitat den erwachsenen sogar in mancher Hinsicht uberlegen. Revierverteidigung, Nahrungserwerb und Aufzucht der Jungen besorgen alle gemeinsam. Wahrend der einige Stunden dauernden Brunst paaren sich die Weibchen mit allen Mannchen des Rudels. So gewinnt das Rattenrudel Merkmale einer uberindividuellen Einheit, die in mancher Hinsicht an die Verhaltnisse bei staatenbildenden Insekten erinnert. Haufig sind ortliche Besonderheiten im Verhalten der Ratten festzustellen, die von alteren Rudelangehorigen ubernommen werden: es bilden sich ortliche Traditionen.
Als Typen der Erdbaue lassen sich Wohnbaue, Vorratsbaue und Deckungslocher unterscheiden.
Bei reichlich vorhandener Nahrung tragen Wanderratten fortgesetzt etwa 4 mal mehr ein, als sie bestenfalls fressen konnen. Sie lagern die Vorrate meistens im Kessel des Baues, dessen Dach sie gemas der Stapelhohe entsprechend heben. Das Vorratslager wird oft stark von Fliegenmaden befallen.
Bei Frost verlassen die Ratten ihre Baue oft viele Tage nicht. Sie sind Dammerungs tiere mit einer abendlichen und morgendlichen Aktivitatsperiode. Auf Mitternacht fallt meistens eine Zeit volliger Ruhe.
Wanderungen sind meistens jahreszeitlich bedingt. Im Fruhjahr wandern die Ratten aus den Gebauden ins Freie und im Herbst (nach starker Vermehrung) wieder in die Gebaude.
Die heutigen Verfahren der Begutachtung von Rattenmitteln sind nicht immer fur das Verhalten der Ratten im Freien reprasentativ. Es wird die Aufstellung von Normen vorgeschlagen, denen grosere Erfahrungskreise zugrunde liegen musten.
152 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a laboratory study of the aggressive behaviour of the vole (Microtus agrestis) has been made as part of an investigation of the consequences of CHITTY's hypothesis concerning the cause of vole population cycles.
Abstract: A laboratory study of the aggressive behaviour of the vole (Microtus agrestis) has been made as part of an investigation of the consequences of CHITTY's hypothesis concerning the cause of vole population cycles. Adult male voles will attack other voles, whether male or female. Some males are more successful in fights than others and they come to be the dominants of the groups to which they belong. Females in advanced pregnancy or those nursing a litter will attack any animals which come near the nest, including dominants that had formerly chased them. Before a male attacks another vole he may move in a jerky fashion through the cage. The jerky movements possibly indicate conflict between aggression and flight. Or an aggressively motivated male may stay in one small area of a cage with his body hunched and with hair erected. While staying at the same spot his legs may make walking movements (marking time), he may turn round on the spot (waltzing), or still retaining the hunched posture and erected hair, he may travel with frequent changes of direction and with short, rapid, leg movements through part of the cage (dancing). This behaviour seems also to indicate activation of both the aggressive and the flight drives, the walking movements being part of the appetitive behaviour of both drives. Waltzing and the frequent changes in direction of movement in dancing, can be regarded as representing the taxis component of attack (moving towards an opponent) and of escape (moving away from an opponent). If an aggressive vole succeeds in catching a subordinate, he may settle upon him and inflict severe wounds. However, a subordinate, before being caught, may retaliate by turning and facing the pursuer. The subordinate then lunges with his incisors bared at the oncoming aggressive animal, or, squatting on his hindquarters, squeals loudly each time the aggressive animal comes near. The retaliation of a subordinate often causes a dominant to retire. Occasionally a subordinate vole that is being chased stops suddenly with his tail erected sharply. The dominant may still be quite near, yet there will not be an attack. This posture of the subordinate may subserve appeasement, as may also the supine posture sometimes assumed by subordinates immediately in front of dominants. When a dominant retires from a retaliating subordinate, he may go to another part of the cage and dig in the sawdust with his fore and hindlegs. This behaviour seems to be a displacement activity, the digging being autochthonously employed in food seeking, tunnel construction and defaecation or urination. The displacement digging is probably caused by the activation of the flight drive in an animal whose aggressive drive is highly activated. Following such digging activity, the dominant animal may re-approach the subordinate inducing it to flee, or the subordinate's repeated retaliation may once more cause the dominant to retire and to do some further displacement digging. In between the successive approaches of an aggressive dominant to a retaliating subordinate, the subordinate may briefly brush its nose with its fore paws. This also seems to be a displacement activity, autochthonously forming part of toileting. Displacement toilet can be interpreted as being caused by slight activation of the aggressive drive of an animal whose flight drive is highly activated.
125 citations
TL;DR: Rank order was found to develop in cages containing 2, 3, 4 and 5 male rats but not in cagescontaining 6 male rats when assessed during the first three weeks after weaning, providing confirmatory evidence that the groups possess a stable structure.
107 citations