A Computational Study on Opposed Flow Flame Spread Over Thin Solid Fuels with Side-Edge Burning
18 Aug 2010-Combustion Science and Technology (Taylor & Francis Group)-Vol. 182, Iss: 9, pp 1321-1340
TL;DR: In this article, a steady-state flame spread model has been used to study the effect of side-edge burning on flame spread over thin solid fuel strips of finite width, and simulations have been carried out for fuel strips with both inhibited (by metallic strips) and uninhibited side edges.
Abstract: A steady-state flame spread model has been used to study the effect of side-edge burning on flame spread over thin solid fuel strips of finite width. Simulations have been carried out for fuel strips with both inhibited (by metallic strips) and uninhibited side edges. The effect inhibition on both normal- and microgravity flame spread along with several intermediate gravity levels has been investigated. Such a study is important for understanding the physiochemical processes controlling the flame spread in low gravity where human experience is limited. Although simulations have shown an overall increase in spread rate for uninhibited cases for both normal- and microgravity flames, some effects such as flame spread variation with external imposed velocity and flame extinction limits show different behavior for microgravity and normal gravity flames. The heat and mass transport processes in the flame have been discussed in detail to explain the observed trends.
Citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors introduce fire safety standards for flammability evaluation of solid material intended for use in a spacecraft habitat, and the difference between the limiting value in microgravity and the indices given by the standard test methods on the ground is discussed.
Abstract: This paper introduces fire safety standards for flammability evaluation of solid material intended for use in a spacecraft habitat. Two types of existing standards include material evaluation by pass/fail criteria corresponding to Test 1 of NASA STD 6001B and evaluation by a flammability index such as maximum oxygen concentration (MOC) corresponding to the improved Test 1. The advantage of the latter is the wide applicability of the MOC index to different atmospheres in spacecraft. Additionally, the limiting oxygen index (LOI) method is introduced as a potential alternative index for the evaluation using the improved Test 1 method. When criteria based on an index such as MOC or LOI are applied for material screening, the discrepancy of the index to the actual flammability limit in microgravity such as minimum limiting oxygen concentration (MLOC) is essential information for guaranteeing fire safety in space because material flammability can be higher in microgravity. In this paper, the existing research on the effects of significant parameters on material flammability in microgravity are introduced, and the difference between the limiting value in microgravity and the indices given by the standard test methods on the ground is discussed. Finally, on-going efforts to develop estimation methods of material flammability in microgravity according to normal gravity tests are summarized.
54 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, a comparison between the downward flame spread rate for thermally thin samples with one or two inhibited edges is done in multiple situations, and the effects of atmospheric composition as well as the width and thickness of a cellulosic-type fuel are tested experimentally.
Abstract: A comparison between the downward flame spread rate for thermally thin samples with one or two inhibited edges is done in multiple situations. The effects of atmospheric composition as well as the width and thickness of a cellulosic-type fuel are tested experimentally. We have found that the normal velocity to the inclined flame front in a side-edge burning is very similar to the downward flame front speed when the sample is inhibited by both edges. Also, the effect of locating a sidewall close to the free edge of the sample is investigated. All these results may be important in order to validate or refute possible models of downward flame spread that take into account side effects.
22 citations
Cites background or methods or result from "A Computational Study on Opposed Fl..."
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TL;DR: In this article, the speed of the flame front when it propagates within a narrow channel (closed cross section), within a channel with lateral walls only and through a free cross section (plain case) was investigated.
Abstract: We experimentally burn thin solid fuels and obtain the speed of the flame front when it propagates (1) within a narrow channel (closed cross section), (2) within a channel with lateral walls only and (3) through a free cross section (plain case). The latter configuration is the classical one and it has been extensively studied with analytical, numerical and experimental methods by other authors. Our experiments have been carried out at different geometrical configurations and angles of inclination of the sample and also at several values of oxygen molar fraction. All experiments are restricted to purely buoyant flow. Our main results are as follows: (1) sidewalls reduce the flame spread rate in a non-monotonous trend when varying its height; (2) in horizontal flame spread, two simultaneous flame fronts that propagate at different velocities may arise in the channel case at high oxygen levels. The fastest flame front speed may be higher than that obtained in the plain case; (3) in upward flame spread, the channel effect configuration produces the highest flame front speed. We finally analyze the correlation of the downward flame front speed data in terms of the Damkohler number.
15 citations
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TL;DR: In this article, the effects of sample thickness (d), sidewalls and atmospheric pressure (p) on the flame spread of extruded polystyrene (XPS) are studied.
Abstract: An experimental study on the characteristics of downward flame spread of extruded polystyrene (XPS) is presented. The parameters investigated include average mass loss rate per unit of thickness (
$$ \dot{m}^{'} $$
), average flame height (H
f), average flame spread rate (v
f), and mass growth rate (
$$ \dot{m}_{1} $$
) of molten XPS. The effects of sample thickness (d), sidewalls and atmospheric pressure (p), and the combined effects of these factors on the flame spread are studied. The larger sample thickness corresponds to larger $$ \dot{m}^{'} $$
and higher flame upon most occasions. As d rises, v
f and $$ \dot{m}_{1} $$
increase under all conditions; v
f and d follow the equation: $$ {\text{v}}_{\text f} = A ( 1- {\text{exp(}} - {\text{Cd))}} $$
. The dimensionless heat release rate: $$ \dot{Q}^{*} \propto { \exp }( - 0. 3d) $$
. $$ \dot{m}^{'} $$
, v
f , and $$ \dot{m}_{1} $$
obtained without sidewalls are higher than those with sidewalls. $$ \dot{m}^{'} $$
, v
f, and H
f obtained on the plain (p = 100.8 kPa) are larger than those obtained on the plateau (p = 65.5 kPa). $$ \dot{m}_{1} $$
obtained on the plain is lower than that on the plateau. In most cases without sidewalls, $$ \dot{m} \propto p^{{\text n_{0}} } $$
, where 1.9 < n
0 < 2, and $$ H_{\text f} = a + \mu p^{{\text n_{0} }} $$
. H
f obtained in the cases without sidewalls is larger than that with sidewalls when the sample thickness is small, while the opposite is true for thicker samples. When sidewalls are absent, on the plain, with a rise in thickness, the increase of v
f is significant for thin samples while the variation is not considerable for thick samples; on the plateau, this increase is significant for all thicknesses tested. The experimental results agree well with the theoretical analysis.
15 citations
Cites result from "A Computational Study on Opposed Fl..."
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TL;DR: In this paper, the downward flame spread over poly(methyl methacrylate) sheets with different dimensions was conducted in comparison with the downward flames spread over samples under infinite dimensions.
Abstract: The experiments of downward flame spread over poly(methyl methacrylate) sheets with different dimensions were conducted in this study. In comparison with flame spread over samples under infinite wi...
11 citations
References
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Book•
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01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on heat and mass transfer, fluid flow, chemical reaction, and other related processes that occur in engineering equipment, the natural environment, and living organisms.
Abstract: This book focuses on heat and mass transfer, fluid flow, chemical reaction, and other related processes that occur in engineering equipment, the natural environment, and living organisms. Using simple algebra and elementary calculus, the author develops numerical methods for predicting these processes mainly based on physical considerations. Through this approach, readers will develop a deeper understanding of the underlying physical aspects of heat transfer and fluid flow as well as improve their ability to analyze and interpret computed results.
21,638 citations
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231 citations
"A Computational Study on Opposed Fl..." refers background in this paper
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TL;DR: In this paper, the near-limit characteristics of a spreading flame are considered, where the flame is extinguished by increasing the heat loss, reducing the total pressure, or reducing the oxygen mole fraction in the environment.
Abstract: In this study the near-limit characteristics of a spreading flame are considered. Flame spreading rates and temperature profiles are measured as extinction conditions are approached. The flame is extinguished by increasing the heat loss, reducing the total pressure, or reducing the oxygen mole fraction in the environment. The gas phase temperature profiles are obtained with fine-wire thermocouple probes. The flame spreading results show that the power-law correlations of McAlevy and Magee [3] do not remain valid near the extinction limit. In all cases the slope of the Log (flame spread rate) vs. Log (total pressure) curves increase and approach vertical at extinction. Differences in vertical and horizontal flame spreading are discussed. The flame temperature profiles are examined for a near-limit flame, but the total pressure level is the only parameter changed. In the near-limit flame the maximum flame temperature is reduced slightly, but the flame is enlarged in physical size greatly. It is observed that near the pyrolysis front, heat transfer forward in the gas phase and normal to the fuel surface are of the same order of magnitude.
63 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, a two-dimensional, opposed-flow, flame-spread model, with flame radiation, has been formulated and solved numerically, and a comparison of flammability limits and flame-spreading rates between opposing and concurrent spreading flames are made; both models contain the same assumptions and properties.
Abstract: Flame-spread phenomena over thin solids are investigated for purely forced-opposing and concurrent flows. A two-dimensional, opposed-flow, flame-spread model, with flame radiation, has been formulated and solved numerically. In the first part of the paper, flammability limits and spread rates in opposed flow are presented, using oxygen percentage, free-stream velocity, and flow-entrance length as parameters. The comparison of the flammability boundaries and spread-rate curves for two different entrance lengths exhibits a cross-over phenomenon. Shorter entrance length results in higher spread rates and a lower oxygen-extinction limit in low free-stream velocities, but lower spread rates and a higher oxygen-extinction limit in high free-stream velocities. The entrance length affects the effective flow rate that the flame sees at the base region. This affects the radiation loss and gas residence-time in an opposing way to cause the cross-over. Radiation also affects the energy balance on the solid surface and is in part responsible for the solid-fuel non-burn-out phenomenon. In the second part of the paper, a comparison of flammability limits and flame-spreading rates between opposing and concurrent spreading flames are made; both models contain the same assumptions and properties. While the spread rate in concurrent spread increases linearly with free-stream velocity, the spread rate in opposed flow varies with free-stream velocity in a non-monotonic manner, with a peak rate at an intermediate free-stream velocity. At a given free-stream velocity, the limiting oxygen limits are lower for concurrent spread, except in the very low free-stream-velocity regime, where the spreading flame may be sustainable in opposed mode and not in concurrent mode. The cross-over disappears if the two spread modes are compared using relative flow velocities with respect to the flames rather than using free-stream velocities with respect to the laboratory.
55 citations
"A Computational Study on Opposed Fl..." refers background in this paper
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TL;DR: In this article, a 5.18-s drop tower with a thin cellulose fuel was used to investigate flame spread in both concurrent and opposed flow in a spacecraft, with a focus on pressure/oxygen combinations that result in earth-equivalent oxygen partial pressures (normoxic conditions).
Abstract: Flame spread experiments in both concurrent and opposed flow have been carried out in a 5.18-s drop tower with a thin cellulose fuel. Flame spread rate and flame length have been measured over a range of 0–30 cm/s forced flow (in both directions), 3.6–14.7 psia, and oxygen mole fractions 0.24–0.85 in nitrogen. Results are presented for each of the three variables independently to elucidate their individual effects, with special emphasis on pressure/oxygen combinations that result in earth-equivalent oxygen partial pressures (normoxic conditions). Correlations using all three variables combined into a single parameter to predict flame spread rate are presented. The correlations are used to demonstrate that opposed flow flames in typical spacecraft ventilation flows (5–20 cm/s) spread faster than concurrent flow flames under otherwise similar conditions (pressure, oxygen concentration) in nearly all spacecraft atmospheres. This indicates that in the event of an actual fire aboard a spacecraft, the fire is likely to grow most quickly in the opposed mode as the upstream flame spreads faster and the downstream flame is inhibited by the vitiated atmosphere produced by the upstream flame. Additionally, an interesting phenomenon was observed at intermediate values of concurrent forced flow velocity where flow/flame interactions produced a recirculation downstream of the flame, which allowed an opposed flow leading edge to form there.
50 citations
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