13
A LITERATURE SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL, POLITICAL,
AND ECONOMIC CHALLENGES IN THE ASEAN
COUNTRIES: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Kanwara Somjai
1
and Mahmoud Moussa
2
Abstract
It is now obvious that numerous issues need to be considered to make the ASEAN
Community (AC) a reality rather than an illusion. The current state of education, economy,
and politics in ASEAN remains far from satisfactory in achieving the desired vision in the
ASEAN Charter and goals in its three blueprints: the ASEAN Political-Security Community
(APSC) Blueprint, the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Blueprint, and the ASEAN
Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) Blueprint. Thus, ignoring challenges and opportunities
presented in the scholarly literature, reports, the media, and other outlets would result in
substantial dilemmas in terms of growth and development in different sectors in the region.
The purpose of this article is to articulate and emphasize challenges that ASEAN governments
should confront and add it to their agendas to achieve the APSC, the AEC, and the ASCC
goals. This paper consists of four sections. Section I describes educational challenges in the
ASCC. Section II illustrates economic challenges in the AEC. Section III presents political
challenges in the APSC. Section IV explores critical thinking questions about all areas covered
in the paper. Finally, the authors drew a succinct conclusion.
Keywords: ASEAN, AEC, APSC, ASCC, Educational, Political, Economic Challenges
_________________________________
1
Kanwara Somjai obtains a Ph.D in the International Graduate Studies Programs (Human Resource
Development), an MBA (Marketing) at the Graduate School of Commerce from Burapha University,
Chonburi, Thailand, and a B.A (Business Management) from Rajabhat Rajanagarindra University,
Chonburi, Thailand. Currently, she is a lecturer at the College of Integrated Science and Technology in
Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, ChiangMai, Thailand. She has been working for
Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-Ok, in Chonburi, Thailand, and Rajamangala University of
Technology Lanna, in ChiangMai, Thailand for the last 25 years. She had worked as an HR director for
Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-Ok for several years. Her research interests are HRD,
HRM, and Marketing.
2
Mahmoud Moussa obtains a M.A. in the International Graduate Studies Programs (Human Resource
Development) from Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand, and a B.A in Arts of Philosophy from Helwan
University, Cairo, Egypt. Currently, he is a faculty member at the International Business Management
program, Faculty of Business Administration and Liberal Arts in Rajamangala University of Technology
Lanna, ChiangMai, Thailand. His research interests are HRD, HRM, human-computer interaction, engaging
learning with technology, attitudes and perceptions of interactions within organizations, cross-cultural
management, and qualitative methods.
ABAC Journal Vol. 36 No. 1 (January-June, 2016 pp 13-33)
14
Kanwara Somjai
and Mahmoud Moussa
INTRODUCTION
Discussions and literatures concerning
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) matters focus on specific themes.
These are: the history of ASEAN in
educational, political, and economic
cooperation; the ASEAN Free Trade Area
(AFTA); the foreign elements that will shape
and determine ASEAN countries’ cooperation
in the future; and the conflict between intra-
regional and extra-regional strategies.
However, this paper is intended solely to
articulate and emphasize challenges that
ASEAN governments should confront and
add it to their agendas to achieve the APSC,
the AEC, and the ASCC goals. Thus, this
paper comprises four sections: (a) educational
challenges in the ASCC; (b) economic
challenges in the AEC; (c) political challenges
in the APSC; and (d) discussion questions.
Purposes and Significance of the Study
Despite the recent noticeable changes in
the attitude of ASEAN governments regarding
the APSC, the AEC, and the ASCC,
considerable challenges in the region remain
stagnant and untracked. Therefore, this paper
is intended to stimulate the awareness of
particular challenges that are very significant
in bringing about changes in the whole region.
From the authors’ points of view, recognizing
challenges can often lead to knowledge
generation, application, and dissemination.
Particularly in the ASEAN Community (AC),
the authors view that without dissemination,
application, and generation of knowledge, the
region is less likely to be unified regardless of
the efforts made to enhance cooperation
among the ASEAN members. Hence,
individuals in ASEAN must continually be
informed about potential risks and challenges
that might be considered hurdles to achieve
the APSC, the AEC, and the ASCC goals in
2015 or regardless of the year specified.
Briefly, the fundamental purposes of this paper
are: to draw attention to some educational,
economic, and political challenges for
ASEAN; and to raise critical thinking
questions regarding challenges confronted by
ASEAN governments and individuals in the
AEC era.
Methods
The authors employed the interpretive
paradigm, which is also termed as
constructivist or constructionist paradigm for
this study. According to Tracy (2013, p. 40),
“if a tree falls in the woods and there is no
one there to hear it, did it really make a sound?
Answers would be less clear-cut and more
involved than the positivist answer.”
Interpretive scholars might say that the issue
depends on the meaning of the word ‘sound.’
Thus, the authors are hoping that the
challenges and the critical questions provided
in this study would make a sound to identify
particular issues considered inevitable to
achieve the AEC. Qualitative and quantitative
data were collected from both primary and
secondary sources (e.g., observations,
analysis of existing journal articles, textbooks,
and reports). The literature reviewed
determined the authors’ niche or field of study,
which contributed to the formulation of the
purposes and supplied suitable concepts. For
the analysis task, the authors segmented data
in what they thought to be relevant and
meaningful. According to Boeije (2010, p.
77), “Segmenting is also referred to as
15
A Literature Survey of Educational, Political, and Economic
Challenges in the ASEAN Countries: A Critical Analysis
unfolding, unraveling, breaking up, separating,
disassembling or fragmenting, and the process
is followed by reassembly of the data.”
Finally, the authors interpreted the data with
careful attention to their own biases and
subjectivity in order to provide a trustworthy
interpretation.
Educational Challenges in the ASCC
Southeast Asia’s universities, compared
to those of the United States and Europe,
remain less developed. Arguably, efforts for
shifting education toward creativity and
innovation in this region should no longer be
viewed as a long-term vision, but a short-term
vision. To achieve this goal, ASEAN
governments will be required to employ
particular strategies. For example, boost the
allocation of resources to develop the
infrastructure needed to support future
growth, promote experimentation and
innovation in high schools to enhance the
students’ cognitive skills, build research
capacity and offer incentives to promote
innovative research based on collaboration
and partnership with industries and
international organizations, train outstanding
students in leading foreign universities, while
encouraging them to return to their home
countries after finishing their studies, guarantee
adequate competencies required for
technological entrepreneurship and
commercialization of research, and promote
a culture of lifelong learning (Yusuf, et al.,
2003). Above and beyond, it is crucial to
recognize where the fundamental gap is
between strategy development and strategy
implementation in higher education institutions
in the ASEAN region (Moussa & Somjai,
2014; Moussa & Somjai, 2015).
Additionally, ASEAN universities need to
place a great importance on, and investigate
the following issues: What should universities
provide in the fast technological era? What
skills should be excelled in the knowledge-
based economy? What epistemologies should
ASEAN universities adopt? Can maximum
autonomy to all individuals and few restrictions
on processes and procedures in ASEAN
universities be permissible? Moreover,
linkages between universities and industries
in the whole region remain insufficient and
should be enhanced; meanwhile, tertiary
education systems should contribute towards
the growth of innovation and creativity. The
poor quality of education and the lack of
industrial competencies in the region are
quandaries that must not be avoided if the
ASEAN countries desire to achieve the AEC
Blueprint goal.
Perhaps, intermediaries such as the
Knowledge Integration Community (KIC),
which was originally developed by the
Cambridge-MIT Institute (CMI), can make
universities in the region more responsive to
the needs and challenges of the ASEAN.
According to the Office of the National
Economic and Social Development Board in
Thailand (2008), each KIC includes delegates
from universities, industries, and government
institutions. This diverse composition of
participants can facilitate knowledge transfer,
better policy frameworks, and better quality
of education, enhance productivity, and
stimulate linkages between different sectors.
The utmost significance of the KIC sessions
is to minimize the occurrence of any conflicts
that may arise between governments and
universities, governments and industries, or
between universities and industries in the
region as a whole. Significantly, the Asian
16
Kanwara Somjai
and Mahmoud Moussa
Development Bank (2007) drew considerable
implications and challenges for ASEAN as
follows: (a) more resources are needed for
tertiary education, (b) the need for technical
and vocational education and training (TVET)
compliant with global market needs, and (c)
the need for upgrading skills and knowledge
to cope with rapid changes in global markets.
The ASEAN Community (AC) should
thoroughly promote the harmonization of skills
standards across the 10 member countries to
enhance workforce productivity, competition,
and job matching in the region. Particularly,
corporations and their representatives should
consider the following measures:
• Develop, monitor, and assess skills
development policies as they affect
organizations and programmes;
• Improve and promote analysis of
skills deficiencies, together with
projections of skill shortages and industry
needs, by region and by sector;
• Coordinate targeted policy
discussions between industries and
education policy-makers;
• Establish links with universities and
training institutions through joint councils
of academia and corporations to help
promote university linkages with
industries and practitioners;
• Promote a culture of lifelong learning;
• Ensure that training systems
encompass awareness of productivity
needs; and
• Promote fair competition standards
to diversify the supply of education and
investigate better future roles for private
sector corporations (Rynhart & Chang,
2014).
One of the critical challenges that ASEAN
governments should emphasize and develop
appropriate tactics to accomplish is the
ASEAN countries’ capacities to attract talent.
A recent quantitative study showed the
ASEAN countries’ capacity to attract talent,
as illustrated below:
Source: World Economic Forum, “Country Capacity to Attract Talent,” Global Competitiveness
Report 2013-14. Adopted from: Rynhart and Chang (2014) from http://www.ilo.org/public/
english/dialogue/actemp/downloads/publications/working_paper_n7_en.pdf
Figure 1. WEF Executive Opinions on Countries’ Capacity to Attract Talent (7=best), 2013
17
A Literature Survey of Educational, Political, and Economic
Challenges in the ASEAN Countries: A Critical Analysis
Furthermore, Shawyun (2014)
thoroughly explored common challenges at
both macro and micro levels. At the macro
level: urge governments to combat corruption,
enhance necessary reforms in higher
education institutions (HEIs) to offer genuine
support to their societies, and focus on the
quality of education through compulsory
practices. At the micro level: all HEIs in
ASEAN must improve the quality of their
education, which requires new systems if the
goal is to reserve a place in the competitive
market of higher education. Hence, it can be
said that the future of HEIs in the ASEAN
era can be bright, only if each HEI adopts a
moral approach enshrined in its mission or
practices. While this can be easier said than
done, a strong desire and strong will to apply
ethical approaches can lead to a better future
of each HEI in the region. Meanwhile,
administrators and policymakers in universities
in ASEAN may consider the following
activities for a plethora of purposes.
Activities
1. Organize courses for various target groups
(e.g., students, faculty members, or village
leaders)
2. Invite government officials and pose
questions at the end of each session
3. Develop a mechanism for dialogues with
the media, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and religious heads to discuss the
ASEAN countries’ problems, suggestions, and
solutions to problems, and involve faculty
members in these discussions
4. Arrange for some on-site visits to several
government development projects
5. Arrange for luncheon/dinner with other
ASEAN universities’ administrators
6. Design and implement small development
projects and provide services for other
universities
7. Invite specialists, professionals, experts
depending on the issue to be tackled
8. Develop some forums for knowledge/skills
transfer on possible projects, activities, plans
Table 1. Suggested Activities and its Purposes in Higher Education Institutions in ASEAN
Purposes
To stimulate participants’ awareness of the
significance of the ASEAN community
To directly convey government messages to
the targeted groups and free exchange of ideas
on specific government policies/treaties
To obtain feedback from various quarters on
community quandaries and solutions, wishes,
and needs, and to enhance faculty members’
knowledge of the ASEAN community
To acquire field experience, and knowledge
of government projects and programs
To foster peace, unity and integration among
different groups, and strengthen ties among
ASEAN universities
To confront particular issues/problems, and
reach consensus on integrated solutions from
all participants
To obtain professional feedback and practical
solutions to specific topics
To transfer valuable knowledge/skills to other
groups