A Review of Alternatives to Wheat Flour

TL;DR: In this paper, a review and discussion of alternatives to traditional wheat flour, with an emphasis on improved nutritional characteristics, is presented, where alternative materials, traditional wheat flours can be fortified and their nutrient profiles enhanced.

Abstract: For centuries, cereals have been major food stuffs used all around the world; because of that, there are many different kinds of breads produced from different types of flours. Despite the variety of flours available, there are still many challenges to produce ingredients which maximize nutrient components, and with which healthier breads and other products can be produced. As studies have shown, traditional wheat flour has some nutritional deficiencies (although this is a matter of perspective), which depend on the level of consumption. Additionally, gluten intolerance and Celiac disease are growing problems. The nutritional value of breads can be enhanced through the use of a variety of alternative flours. The objective of this study is to review and discuss alternatives to traditional wheat flour, with an emphasis on improved nutritional characteristics. Oat, for instance, has been used to improve the protein and fiber content of bread. Fortification of breads with soybean flour can also dramatically improve their protein quality. Barley, flaxseed, and rye flours can be used to increase the amount of dietary fiber in breads. Dietary fiber can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes. Rye flour is recommended as an integral part of the diet as a source of biologically active substances. There are also other materials which can be used to add value to flour. One of them is DDGS, which is a co-product from the production of fuel ethanol from corn. By using alternative materials, traditional wheat flours can be fortified and their nutrient profiles enhanced.

Summary

Introduction

• Today, many countries are confronting problems such as malnutrition and micronutrient malnutrition (Pourafshar et al., 2010).
• The whole world is fighting with different forms of malnutrition and the lack of sufficient healthy foods which can be available for everyone.
• Also, both oat and barley can enhance the β-glucan content of bread, which can have a significant effect on human health (Marrioti et al., 2006).
• Studies have shown that intake of bread fortified with rye flour can result in stabilization of the iron statues in young women (Sudha, 2008).
• Because various sources are available which can be used to fortify cereal-based foods, and can help to reduce malnutrition, especially micronutrient malnutrition, the objectives of this paper are to discuss traditional wheat flour, its short comings and potential alternatives that can be used to supply/fortify cereal-based foods.

Traditional Wheat Flour

• It belongs to the Triticum family, of which there are many species; T. aestivum and T. durum are the most important commercially (Mckevith, 2004).
• Some of these classes are Hard Red Winter, Hard Red Spring, Soft White, Soft Red, Durum and Hard White (Taylor et al., 2005).
• In order to produce these products, wheat must be processed into flour.
• Hard wheat flour is generally used to bake bread because of its high gluten levels.
• All-purpose flour, on the other hand, can be used to bake anything, it can be found in both bleached and unbleached forms.

Nutritional Challenges

• With various nutrient components and attributes, there are some deficiencies and challenges for which they should be fortified or enriched, or even replaced with other cereal grain flours.
• But due to milling and refining, many of these nutrient components can be lost; therefore the final flour product will not be as nutritious.
• But because the outer layer of the wheat grain is the source of fiber (Anjum et al., 2006), and this outer layer is removed by milling and processing the grain into flour, wheat flour would not be a good source of dietary fiber.
• It can affect the skin, nervous system, immune system, teeth, and even behavior and mood.
• There are different types of gluten intolerance; the most important is Celiac disease (Wangen, 2009).

Alternative Flours

• As Table 1 shows, there are many types of flours produced from different grains.
• Each of these flours has its own physical, chemical and nutritional properties.
• Here, some of these grains and flours will be discussed.

Almond

• These benefits include control of weight and diabetes (Richardson et al., 2009).
• Almond itself contains no carbohydrates, so it can be used to produce flour for cakes and cookies for patients suffering from diabetes.
• Almonds are very low in sodium and high in potassium (Richardson et al., 2009).

Amaranth

• Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus) is a nutritious grain as well as tasty leafy vegetable (National Research Council, 1984).
• Cultivation of amaranth dates as far back as 4000 B.C, when it was believed to have mystical qualities.
• Amaranth is a nutritious grain which contains high amounts of lysine; it has twice the lysine content of wheat protein (Pszczola, 1998).
• The high lysine in amaranth grain and flour can improve the protein quality of bread.
• Studies show amaranth flour can be used up to 15% in production of amaranth-wheat composite breads without any significant effect on physical and sensory qualities of the bread (Ayo, 2001).

Barley

• There is evidence that the use of barley (Hordeum vulgare) dates back many thousands of years.
• Barley grains were processed and used to make bread in Israel 2000 years ago (Piperno et al., 2004).
• Barley flour can be used in soap, stew, beer, and bread making (Mckevith, 2004).
• It can add moisture and extend shelf life when it is added to the baked goods (Daley, 2001).
• Since plasma cholesterol concentration has an important role in cardiovascular diseases, it is important to have a diet which controls this.

Buckwheat

• Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is an important source of vitamins, dietary fiber, minerals and proteins.
• Buckwheat flour contains various components such as starch, lipids and enzymes (Kiyokaza, 1999), and available in dark or light varieties (Daley, 2001).
• This flour is widely consumed in countries such as Japan for the production of noodles, which is a traditional food (Namai, 1992).
• Buckwheat flour is gluten-free (Shepherd et al, 2006), and it also has healthy effects on the human body.
• Because of that, about 40 years ago, buckwheat was cultivated in the United States as an important commercial source of medicine (Couch et al., 1946).

Distillers Grains

• Distillers dried grains (DDG) and distillers died grains with solubles (DDGS) are co-products from the production of industrial fuel ethanol.
• Ethanol can be produced from corn grain using either the wet-milling process or the dry-milling process (Rosentrater and Muthukumarappan, 2006).
• Since these co-products are good source of nutrient components such as protein and fiber, they may be useful as a source of fortification for cereal-based foods.
• Typical nutrient ranges are shown in Table 1.
• Because DDG and DDGS are based on corn, they are gluten free.

Maize

• Maize, after wheat and rice, is the most important cereal grain in the world, and it provides nutrients for both humans and animals.
• Maize is also used to produce raw materials for the production of starch, oil, alcoholic beverages and more recently, fuel (FAO, 1992).
• As a food, maize can be used in a large number of products such as maize grits of different particle size, maize meal, maize flour or cornmeal, and flaking grits (FAO, 1992).
• Cornmeal, which is a flour ground from dried corn, can be made in yellow, white and even red varieties, and it is gluten-free (Olexova et al, 2006).
• Cornmeal absorbs liquids more slowly than wheat flour, so in the production of bread, the dough should be allowed to rest more than 5 to 10 min, so that liquid can be absorbed adequately (Daley, 2001).

Oat

• Oat (Avena sativa) can be grown in different climates; there are different kinds of species, with the spring or white oat the most common (Mckevith, 2004).
• Oat is a very healthy grain with high concentrations of proteins, lipids, vitamins, antioxidant, phenolic components, and minerals (Drzikova et al., 2005).
• Since it is believed that dietary fiber has a positive effect in lowering blood cholesterol, oat can be a good source for this purpose.
• Oat flour is nothing more than very finely milled oat grain.

Potato

• Potato (Solanum tuberosum) flour and potato starch are often used in baking products such as biscuits or cookies to add tenderness to those products and make a fine moist crumb.
• Potato flour is made from potatoes that have been cooked, dried and ground (Daley, 2001).
• In some countries, potato has a great role in the food industry and production of noodles.
• Since this flour is gluten-free (Shepherd et al, 2006), it can be used to produce noodles which are free of wheat flour and are called “glass noodles” because of their shiny and clear appearance after cooking (Takahiro et al., 2006).

Quinoa

• Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a starchy annual herb which is mainly produced in the high lands of Peru and Bolivia (Morita et al., 2001).
• It contains large amounts of minerals, lipids and high quality protein, which contains essential amino acids such as lysine.
• The outer layer of quinoa seed contains an element named suponin, which is a bitter material that gives soapy taste to finished products if it remains during processing.
• Quinoa can lower the cholesterol level of blood.
• One of the products from this plant is quinoa flour which can be used in baked goods such as muffins, pancake, etc. (Daley, 2001).

Rye

• It contains both soluble and insoluble fiber and the amount of soluble fiber is even higher than that of the whole meal wheat and oatmeal.
• Rye can have a health benefit since the high amount of fiber can have a positive effect on lowering blood cholesterol and reducing heart diseases (Buttriss, 2006).
• Rye flour can be produced as dark or whole rye flour.
• Dark flour retains much more of the proteins, vitamins and minerals (Daley, 2001).
• Rye flour contains some gluten, but the amount of gluten is much lower compared to wheat, so the bread made with rye is dense, heavy, and damp.

Soybean

• Soybean (Glycine max) is a healthy grain with many nutrient components.
• One of the major components in this grain is soy protein.
• If soy protein is consumed at the recommended level every day, it has enough essential amino acids to meet human nutritional requirements, since it is equivalent to animal protein in quality (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985).
• Soy flour is one of the products produced from milling soybeans.
• Since soy flour does not behave as conventional flour in baking, it should be blended with other flours.

Spelt

• Triticum spelta, also known as spelt, was originally grown in Iran around 5000 to 6000 B.C.
• Spelt flour can replace whole wheat flour or whole grain flour in foods such as bread and pasta (Jegtvig, 2008).
• Since the nutrient (and gluten) content of spelt is close to that of wheat, it is not suitable for people with Celiac disease.

Conclusions

• Cereals are some of the most consumed foods around the world.
• But the problem with most baked products, especially those in which wheat flour is used, is that many of the nutrients, such as minerals, vitamins, and fiber can be lost due to milling.
• To help people to receive more nutrient components and to reduce certain diseases and problems (such as cardiovascular diseases, allergies, cancer, and malnutrition), it is important to improve the nutrient profiles of cereal products.
• Fortification of flours and their products is one way to achieve that goal.
• Another source of fortification can be co-products from cereal grain processing, such as DDGS, which is high in protein and fiber.

Figures

Table 1. Nutrient compositions of different flours (from various market sources).

Full text

Iowa State University
From the SelectedWorks of Kurt A. Rosentrater
June, 2010
A Review of Alternatives to Wheat Flour
Shirin Pourafshar, South Dakota State University
Kurt A. Rosentrater, United States Department of Agriculture
Padmanaban Krishnan, South Dakota State University
Available at: h'ps://works.bepress.com/kurt_rosentrater/30/

An ASABE Meeting Presentation
Paper Number: 1008668
A Review of Alternatives to Wheat Flour
Shirin Pourafshar
Graduate Research Assistant, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007.
Kurt A. Rosentrater, ASABE Member Engineer
Bioprocess Engineer, USDA, ARS, North Central Agricultural Research Laboratory,
Brookings, SD 57006.
Padmanaban Krishnan
Professor, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007.
Written for presentation at the
2010 ASABE Annual International Meeting
David L. Lawrence Convention Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
June 20-23, 2010
Abstract. For centuries, cereals have been major food stuffs used all around the world; because of
that, there are many different kinds of breads produced from different types of flours. Despite the
variety of flours available, there are still many challenges to produce ingredients which maximize
nutrient components, and with which healthier breads and other products can be produced. As
studies have shown, traditional wheat flour has some nutritional deficiencies (although this is a
matter of perspective), which depend on the level of consumption. Additionally, gluten intolerance
and Celiac disease are growing problems. The nutritional value of breads can be enhanced through
the use of a variety of alternative flours. The objective of this study is to review and discuss
alternatives to traditional wheat flour, with an emphasis on improved nutritional characteristics. Oat,
for instance, has been used to improve the protein and fiber content of bread. Fortification of breads
with soybean flour can also dramatically improve their protein quality. Barley, flaxseed, and rye flours
can be used to increase the amount of dietary fiber in breads. Dietary fiber can reduce the risk of
coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes. Rye flour is recommended as an integral part of the diet as
a source of biologically active substances. There are also other materials which can be used to add
value to flour. One of them is DDGS, which is a co-product from the production of fuel ethanol from
corn. By using alternative materials, traditional wheat flours can be fortified and their nutrient profiles
enhanced.
Keywords. All-purpose flour, Alternative flour, Fortification, Wheat flour.

2
Introduction
Today, many countries are confronting problems such as malnutrition and micronutrient
malnutrition (Pourafshar et al., 2010). More than two billion people in the world, especially
children and women, suffer from deficiencies of various nutrients (Sudha and Leelavathi, 2008).
Malnutrition can lead to underweight children, anemic mothers, diseases such as marasmus,
beriberi, scurvy, kwashiorkor, etc. (Pourafshar et al., 2010). Food also supplies more than just
energy and nutrients; it can help to reduce the risk of diseases such as heart disease, diabetes,
osteoporosis, and cancer. The importance of a healthy diet cannot be stressed enough.
However, the whole world is fighting with different forms of malnutrition and the lack of sufficient
healthy foods which can be available for everyone. Thus to find solutions to these problems is of
great importance.
One solution can be fortification of inexpensive food staples which are available all around the
world. One of these sources is cereal. Cereals are cheap source of energy, and are consumed
by almost everyone around the world. Fortification is the process by which nutrients are added
to a food to improve its nutritional quality (Sudha and Leelavathi, 2008). Since many nutrient
components of cereals are in the outer layers of grains and seeds, due to milling and refining
these layers are often separated, and many of the nutrient components such as iron, zinc,
vitamin A, fiber and other nutrients can be lost. So, to fortify cereal flours can be a great help in
reducing malnutrition. Since wheat flour is the most consumed form of flour, it can be fortified
with different materials, such as vitamins and minerals, but it can also be fortified with
alternative flours or co-products. Different grains can be used, such as oat, barley, soybean,
amaranth, rye, etc.
For example, oat can be used to improve the protein content of bread or to increase the soluble
fiber level. Also, both oat and barley can enhance the β-glucan content of bread, which can
have a significant effect on human health (Marrioti et al., 2006). Fortification of bread with
soybean flour can improve the protein and fiber content of bread, and it is a good source of
lecithin, vitamins, minerals and lignins, which may be beneficial in decreasing the risk of
cardiovascular diseases and cancer (Mashayekh et al., 2008). Amaranth has twice the lysine
content of wheat protein. It also has cholesterol-lowering properties attributable to its nutrient
components; its fiber content is three times higher than that of wheat (Ayo, 2001). Studies have
shown that intake of bread fortified with rye flour can result in stabilization of the iron statues in
young women (Sudha, 2008). Because various sources are available which can be used to

3
fortify cereal-based foods, and can help to reduce malnutrition, especially micronutrient
malnutrition, the objectives of this paper are to discuss traditional wheat flour, its short comings
and potential alternatives that can be used to supply/fortify cereal-based foods.
Traditional Wheat Flour
Wheat is a major cereal crop in many parts of the world. It belongs to the Triticum family, of
which there are many species; T. aestivum and T. durum are the most important commercially
(Mckevith, 2004). Wheat is divided into six classes based on different genetic characteristics.
Some of these classes are Hard Red Winter, Hard Red Spring, Soft White, Soft Red, Durum
and Hard White (Taylor et al., 2005). Wheat is well adapted to various environment and soil
conditions, it is easy to cultivate and is highly yielding. Over the past 10 years, the world has
produced nearly 576.3 million metric tons of wheat annually from approximately 218.2 million
hectares of land. Wheat is used to produce different kind of foods, such as bread, pasta,
noodles, pastry, breakfast cereals and baby foods. In order to produce these products, wheat
must be processed into flour. Flour is produced from grinding and milling wheat kernels. There
are different kinds of flours which are produced for specific purposes; for example, soft wheat
flour is used for baking cake and pastry, hard wheat flour is used for bread, and all purpose flour
is a blend of these two which is used to produce many types of the bakery goods (Hiu et al.,
2006).
All-purpose flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat flours. Each of these flours is used for a
specific bakery product. Hard wheat flour is generally used to bake bread because of its high
gluten levels. Soft wheat flour is a good choice for baked goods that do not need to rely upon
high gluten content like pastries (Hillman, 2003). All-purpose flour, on the other hand, can be
used to bake anything, it can be found in both bleached and unbleached forms. Bleached flour
is better for making cookies, cakes and pastry, while unbleached flour is desirable in making
yeast dough (Daley, 2001). Since the nutritional content of wheat grain is affected by the climate
and seasonal changes, brands of all-purpose flours can vary in their nutrition contents over time
as well.
Hard wheat flours are used in bread making because they form a strong gluten network in the
dough which is necessary in production of bread. The gluten content of hard wheat flour or
bread flour which is made from hard red wheat, can be between 12.5% and 14%. Bread flour
can be white or whole wheat, bleached or unbleached, and can be also organic (Daley, 2001).

4
Nutritional Challenges
Although wheat flour comes in different forms, with various nutrient components and attributes,
there are some deficiencies and challenges for which they should be fortified or enriched, or
even replaced with other cereal grain flours. These problems can be deficiencies of some
micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, or problems with the gluten of the wheat, which
can cause various allergies and diseases in some people.
Naturally, wheat is a good source of vitamins such as vitamin B, vitamin E, as well as iron and
zinc (Anonymous, 2010). But due to milling and refining, many of these nutrient components
can be lost; therefore the final flour product will not be as nutritious. Wheat flour contains about
8-12% protein and has limited amounts of essential amino acids such as lysine which is an
important nutrient for the body (Khetarpaul and Goyal, 2009). Another problem which is also
caused by the milling process is the loss of dietary fiber. Dietary fiber can help reduce blood
pressure; it can prevent and reduce heart disease, as well. But because the outer layer of the
wheat grain is the source of fiber (Anjum et al., 2006), and this outer layer is removed by milling
and processing the grain into flour, wheat flour would not be a good source of dietary fiber.
Supplementing wheat flour with alternative flours would be one way to improve the nutrition of
the ingredient.
Another important nutritional problem of wheat flour is the allergies it can cause in some people
who are gluten intolerant. Gluten intolerance can cause many health problems. It can affect the
skin, nervous system, immune system, teeth, and even behavior and mood. There are different
types of gluten intolerance; the most important is Celiac disease (Wangen, 2009). Celiac is a
genetic disease which is characterized by a sensitivity to certain sequences of amino acids
found in the prolamin fraction of wheat and some other grains (Thompson et al., 2005). Because
it is a genetically-based disease, there is an increase risk of 1 in 10 in families where Celiac
disease already exists (Midhagen et al., 2004). When a person with such a disease consumes
wheat, the mucosa of the small intestine is damaged, which causes malabsorption of nutrients
(Thompson et al., 2005). People with Celiac disease are directed to have a gluten-free diet for
the rest of their lives, which is often hard because gluten is a component found in many foods
(Maher, 2008). So far, this is the only answer to this disease. Because one of the most
important problems with wheat grain is the potential for gluten intolerance, it behooves scientists
to look for solutions to replace this grain with other alternatives.

Frequently asked questions

Q1. What are the contributions in "A review of alternatives to wheat flour" ?

The objective of this study is to review and discuss alternatives to traditional wheat flour, with an emphasis on improved nutritional characteristics. 

Q2. What is the way to improve the protein content of bread?

Fortification of bread with soybean flour can improve the protein and fiber content of bread, and it is a good source of lecithin, vitamins, minerals and lignins, which may be beneficial in decreasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer (Mashayekh et al., 2008). 

Q3. What is the health benefit of rye?

Rye can have a health benefit since the high amount of fiber can have a positive effect on lowering blood cholesterol and reducing heart diseases (Buttriss, 2006). 

Q4. What are the main objectives of this paper?

Because various sources are available which can be used tofortify cereal-based foods, and can help to reduce malnutrition, especially micronutrient malnutrition, the objectives of this paper are to discuss traditional wheat flour, its short comings and potential alternatives that can be used to supply/fortify cereal-based foods. 

Q5. How much lysine can be used in bread?

Studies show amaranth flour can be used up to 15% in production of amaranth-wheat composite breads without any significant effect on physical and sensory qualities of the bread (Ayo, 2001). 

Q6. What is the problem with baked products?

But the problem with most baked products, especially those in which wheat flour is used, is that many of the nutrients, such as minerals, vitamins, and fiber can be lost due to milling. 

Q7. What is the common form of flour?

Since wheat flour is the most consumed form of flour, it can be fortified with different materials, such as vitamins and minerals, but it can also be fortified with alternative flours or co-products. 

Q8. How can ethanol be produced from corn?

Ethanol can be produced from corn grain using either the wet-milling process or the dry-milling process (Rosentrater and Muthukumarappan, 2006). 

Q9. What is the role of dietary fiber in cardiovascular diseases?

Since plasma cholesterol concentration has an important role in cardiovascular diseases, it is important to have a diet which controls this. 

Q10. What is the gluten content of arrowroot flour?

Arrowroot flour is gluten-free (Shepherd et al, 2006), and itcan be used as a thickener or an ingredient in biscuits and crackers. 

Q11. What is the way to replace almond flour?

Almond can be eaten on its own or can be used in breads, sweets, desserts, spreads, so it can be also a good replacement of peanut for those who have peanut allergy. 

Q12. What is the effect of rye flour on the iron statues?

Studies have shown that intake of bread fortified with rye flour can result in stabilization of the iron statues in young women (Sudha, 2008). 

Q13. What is the way to replace wheat flour?

Almond itself contains no carbohydrates, so it can be used to produce flour for cakes and cookies for patients suffering from diabetes. 

Q14. What is the reason why wheat flour is not a good source of dietary fiber?

But because the outer layer of the wheat grain is the source of fiber (Anjum et al., 2006), and this outer layer is removed by milling and processing the grain into flour, wheat flour would not be a good source of dietary fiber. 

Q15. What is the cause of the damage of the small intestine?

When a person with such a disease consumes wheat, the mucosa of the small intestine is damaged, which causes malabsorption of nutrients (Thompson et al., 2005). 

Q16. What is the way to make buckwheat flour?

Buckwheat flour contains various components such as starch, lipids and enzymes (Kiyokaza, 1999), and available in dark or light varieties (Daley, 2001). 

Q17. What is the way to make quinoa flour?

Quinoa flour is rarely allergenic because it isgluten-free; substitution of quinoa flour for wheat flour could improve the balance of starch, protein and lipids, and can increase the loaf volume of bread (Morita et al., 2001). 

Q18. What is the effect of dietary fiber on the cholesterol concentration in baked goods?

The amount and the nature of dietary fiber have a significant effect on the concentration of plasma cholesterol, and barley is a good source of dietary fiber so it can be a healthy source for those with cardiovascular problems, since it is capable of lowering plasma cholesterol (Mclntosh et al., 1991). 

Q19. Why is there an increase in the risk of Celiac disease?

Because it is a genetically-based disease, there is an increase risk of 1 in 10 in families where Celiac disease already exists (Midhagen et al., 2004). 

Q20. What is the way to make rye flour?

Rye flour contains some gluten, but the amount of gluten is much lower compared to wheat, so the bread made with rye is dense, heavy, and damp. 

Q21. What is the reason why wheat flour is not as nutritious?

But due to milling and refining, many of these nutrient components can be lost; therefore the final flour product will not be as nutritious. 

Q22. What is the way to improve the nutritional profile of flours?

Most of these fortification sources are relatively inexpensive, so improved or altered flours is an effective way for people to consume more nutritious food globablly.