A review of commuter exposure to ultrafine particles and its health effects
TL;DR: In this article, a review of in-transit UFP exposure studies performed to date, including studies of health effects, is presented, which indicates that a large proportion of daily exposure may occur during commuting and the determinants, variability and transport mode-dependence of such exposure are not wellunderstood.
About: This article is published in Atmospheric Environment.The article was published on 2011-05-01. It has received 278 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Ultrafine particle.
Citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors systematically reviewed and analyzed available source apportionment studies on particulate matter (of diameter of 10 and 25 microns, PM10 and PM25) performed in cities to estimate typical shares of the sources of pollution by country and by region.
688 citations
Cites background from "A review of commuter exposure to ul..."
...However, we should also consider ultrafine particles (particulate matter smaller than 100 nm, PM1) produced in large quantities by vehicular combustion and their role for causing several adverse human health effects (Knibbs et al., 2011)....
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TL;DR: This article reviews the current approaches to source apportionment of ambient particles and the latest evidence for their health effects, and describes the current metrics, policies and legislation for the protection of public health from ambient particles.
Abstract: The diversity of ambient particle size and chemical composition considerably complicates pinpointing the specific causal associations between exposure to particles and adverse human health effects, the contribution of different sources to ambient particles at different locations, and the consequent formulation of policy action to most cost-effectively reduce harm caused by airborne particles. Nevertheless, the coupling of increasingly sophisticated measurements and models of particle composition and epidemiology continue to demonstrate associations between particle components and sources (and at lower concentrations) and a wide range of adverse health outcomes. This article reviews the current approaches to source apportionment of ambient particles and the latest evidence for their health effects, and describes the current metrics, policies and legislation for the protection of public health from ambient particles. A particular focus is placed on particles in the ultrafine fraction. The review concludes with an extended evaluation of emerging challenges and future requirements in methods, metrics and policy for understanding and abating adverse health outcomes from ambient particles.
580 citations
TL;DR: This article reviews some fundamental drivers of UFP emissions and dispersion, and highlights unresolved challenges, as well as recommendations to ensure sustainable urban development whilst minimising any possible adverse health impacts.
491 citations
TL;DR: A novel conceptual model for the integrated assessment of human exposure to air pollutants taking into account latest technological capabilities and contextual information is proposed.
370 citations
Cites background from "A review of commuter exposure to ul..."
...The transport ME has received much attention in environmental exposure studies (Colbeck and Nasir, 2010; Hertel et al., 2001b; Kaur et al., 2007; Knibbs et al., 2011; WHO, 2005a)....
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Queensland University of Technology1, Aalborg University2, Korea Institute of Science and Technology3, University of Cassino4, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology5, National Institutes of Health6, University of Salzburg7, Lund University8, University of Eastern Finland9, Drexel University10
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed existing literature to identify state-of-the-art experimental techniques used for personal exposure assessment; compare exposure levels reported for domestic/school settings in different countries, assess the contribution of outdoor background vs indoor sources to personal exposure; and examine scientific understanding of the risks posed by personal exposure to indoor aerosols.
Abstract: Motivated by growing considerations of the scale, severity, and risks associated with human exposure to indoor particulate matter, this work reviewed existing literature to: (i) identify state-of-the-art experimental techniques used for personal exposure assessment; (ii) compare exposure levels reported for domestic/school settings in different countries (excluding exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and particulate matter from biomass cooking in developing countries); (iii) assess the contribution of outdoor background vs indoor sources to personal exposure; and (iv) examine scientific understanding of the risks posed by personal exposure to indoor aerosols. Limited studies assessing integrated daily residential exposure to just one particle size fraction, ultrafine particles, show that the contribution of indoor sources ranged from 19% to 76%. This indicates a strong dependence on resident activities, source events and site specificity, and highlights the importance of indoor sources for total personal exposure. Further, it was assessed that 10-30% of the total burden of disease from particulate matter exposure was due to indoor-generated particles, signifying that indoor environments are likely to be a dominant environmental factor affecting human health. However, due to challenges associated with conducting epidemiological assessments, the role of indoor-generated particles has not been fully acknowledged, and improved exposure/risk assessment methods are still needed, together with a serious focus on exposure control.
364 citations
References
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TL;DR: It is the opinion of the writing group that the overall evidence is consistent with a causal relationship between PM2.5 exposure and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
Abstract: In 2004, the first American Heart Association scientific statement on “Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease” concluded that exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution contributes to card...
5,227 citations
TL;DR: The number of people exposed to environmental tobacco smoke in California seems to have decreased over the same time period, where exposure is determined by the reported time spent with a smoker.
Abstract: Because human activities impact the timing, location, and degree of pollutant exposure, they play a key role in explaining exposure variation. This fact has motivated the collection of activity pattern data for their specific use in exposure assessments. The largest of these recent efforts is the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS), a 2-year probability-based telephone survey ( n=9386) of exposure-related human activities in the United States (U.S.) sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The primary purpose of NHAPS was to provide comprehensive and current exposure information over broad geographical and temporal scales, particularly for use in probabilistic population exposure models. NHAPS was conducted on a virtually daily basis from late September 1992 through September 1994 by the University of Maryland's Survey Research Center using a computer-assisted telephone interview instrument (CATI) to collect 24-h retrospective diaries and answers to a number of personal and exposure-related questions from each respondent. The resulting diary records contain beginning and ending times for each distinct combination of location and activity occurring on the diary day (i.e., each microenvironment). Between 340 and 1713 respondents of all ages were interviewed in each of the 10 EPA regions across the 48 contiguous states. Interviews were completed in 63% of the households contacted. NHAPS respondents reported spending an average of 87% of their time in enclosed buildings and about 6% of their time in enclosed vehicles. These proportions are fairly constant across the various regions of the U.S. and Canada and for the California population between the late 1980s, when the California Air Resources Board (CARB) sponsored a state-wide activity pattern study, and the mid-1990s, when NHAPS was conducted. However, the number of people exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in California seems to have decreased over the same time period, where exposure is determined by the reported time spent with a smoker. In both California and the entire nation, the most time spent exposed to ETS was reported to take place in residential locations.
3,400 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a new HEI study showed that some low-emission diesel engines emit much higher concentrations of nanoparticles than older designs and other low-EMission designs, which has raised questions about whether nanoparticle (number based) emission standards should be imposed.
2,263 citations
TL;DR: The studies demonstrate that the increased biological potency of UFPs is related to the content of redox cycling organic chemicals and their ability to damage mitochondria.
Abstract: The objectives of this study were to determine whether differences in the size and composition of coarse (2.5-10 micro m), fine (< 2.5 microm), and ultrafine (< 0.1 microm) particulate matter (PM) are related to their uptake in macrophages and epithelial cells and their ability to induce oxidative stress. The premise for this study is the increasing awareness that various PM components induce pulmonary inflammation through the generation of oxidative stress. Coarse, fine, and ultrafine particles (UFPs) were collected by ambient particle concentrators in the Los Angeles basin in California and used to study their chemical composition in parallel with assays for generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ability to induce oxidative stress in macrophages and epithelial cells. UFPs were most potent toward inducing cellular heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression and depleting intracellular glutathione. HO-1 expression, a sensitive marker for oxidative stress, is directly correlated with the high organic carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of UFPs. The dithiothreitol (DTT) assay, a quantitative measure of in vitro ROS formation, was correlated with PAH content and HO-1 expression. UFPs also had the highest ROS activity in the DTT assay. Because the small size of UFPs allows better tissue penetration, we used electron microscopy to study subcellular localization. UFPs and, to a lesser extent, fine particles, localize in mitochondria, where they induce major structural damage. This may contribute to oxidative stress. Our studies demonstrate that the increased biological potency of UFPs is related to the content of redox cycling organic chemicals and their ability to damage mitochondria.
1,933 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Nel describes how the adverse effects of ultrafine air particles are linked to their ability to gain access to the lung and systemic circulation, where toxic components lead to tissue damage and inflammation.
Abstract: Particle pollutants are estimated to cause more than 500,000 deaths
annually. In his perspective, Nel describes how the adverse effects of ultrafine air particles are
linked to their ability to gain access to the lung and systemic
circulation, where toxic components lead to tissue damage and
inflammation. Increased insight into which particle components are
most damaging, and the molecular mechanisms of injury, will help to
prevent PM mortality.
1,427 citations