A review of Listeria monocytogenes: An update on outbreaks, virulence, dose-response, ecology, and risk assessments
TL;DR: The recent outbreaks underscored the individual characteristics of specific foods and raised questions about the current understanding of infectivity of lower doses and the susceptibility of specific individuals, and further research is clearly necessary to control this pathogen.
About: This article is published in Food Control.The article was published on 2017-05-01 and is currently open access. It has received 562 citations till now.
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TL;DR: The evidence that links animals as vehicles of the foodborne pathogens Salmonella, Campylobacter, Shiga toxigenic E. coli, and L. monocytogenes, their impact, and their current status is reviewed.
296 citations
TL;DR: Quantitative modelling suggests that more than 90% of invasive listeriosis is caused by ingestion of RTE food containing > 2,000 colony forming units (CFU)/g, and that one‐third of cases are due to growth in the consumer phase.
Abstract: Food safety criteria for Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods have been applied from 2006 onwards (Commission Regulation (EC) 2073/2005). Still, human invasive listeriosis was reported to increase over the period 2009-2013 in the European Union and European Economic Area (EU/EEA). Time series analysis for the 2008-2015 period in the EU/EEA indicated an increasing trend of the monthly notified incidence rate of confirmed human invasive listeriosis of the over 75 age groups and female age group between 25 and 44 years old (probably related to pregnancies). A conceptual model was used to identify factors in the food chain as potential drivers for L. monocytogenes contamination of RTE foods and listeriosis. Factors were related to the host (i. population size of the elderly and/or susceptible people; ii. underlying condition rate), the food (iii. L. monocytogenes prevalence in RTE food at retail; iv. L. monocytogenes concentration in RTE food at retail; v. storage conditions after retail; vi. consumption), the national surveillance systems (vii. improved surveillance), and/or the bacterium (viii. virulence). Factors considered likely to be responsible for the increasing trend in cases are the increased population size of the elderly and susceptible population except for the 25-44 female age group. For the increased incidence rates and cases, the likely factor is the increased proportion of susceptible persons in the age groups over 45 years old for both genders. Quantitative modelling suggests that more than 90% of invasive listeriosis is caused by ingestion of RTE food containing > 2,000 colony forming units (CFU)/g, and that one-third of cases are due to growth in the consumer phase. Awareness should be increased among stakeholders, especially in relation to susceptible risk groups. Innovative methodologies including whole genome sequencing (WGS) for strain identification and monitoring of trends are recommended.
269 citations
Cites background from "A review of Listeria monocytogenes:..."
...The causes of deaths among elderly in nursing homes and care facilities may remain undetermined (Buchanan et al., 2017) and therefore mortality may be underestimated for these groups....
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...For instance, in the USA this development is reported to have led to the detection of a larger number of outbreaks with a fewer number of cases (Buchanan et al., 2017)....
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TL;DR: This review is aimed at providing a summary of the current knowledge on the response of L. monocytogenes toward stresses and the mechanisms of stress resistance employed by this important food-borne bacterium.
Abstract: Listeria monocytogenes is a human food-borne facultative intracellular pathogen that is resistant to a wide range of stress conditions. As a consequence, L. monocytogenes is extremely difficult to control along the entire food chain from production to storage and consumption. Frequent and recent outbreaks of L. monocytogenes infections illustrate that current measures of decontamination and preservation are suboptimal to control L. monocytogenes in food. In order to develop efficient measures to prevent contamination during processing and control growth during storage of food it is crucial to understand the mechanisms utilized by L. monocytogenes to tolerate the stress conditions in food matrices and food processing environments. Food-related stress conditions encountered by L. monocytogenes along the food chain are acidity, oxidative and osmotic stress, low or high temperatures, presence of bacteriocins and other preserving additives, and stresses as a consequence of applying alternative decontamination and preservation technologies such high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed and continuous UV light, pulsed electric fields (PEF). This review is aimed at providing a summary of the current knowledge on the response of L. monocytogenes toward these stresses and the mechanisms of stress resistance employed by this important food-borne bacterium. Circumstances when L. monocytogenes cells become more sensitive or more resistant are mentioned and existence of a cross-resistance when multiple stresses are present is pointed out.
144 citations
TL;DR: Factors in food processing chains and environments including extensive or sub-inhibitory antibiotics use, horizontal gene transfer, exposure to environmental stresses, biofilm formation, and presence of persister cells play crucial roles in the development of antibiotic resistance by L. monocytogenes.
Abstract: Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic pathogen that has been involved in several deadly illness outbreaks. Future outbreaks may be more difficult to manage because of the emergence of antibiotic resistance among L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products. The present review summarizes the available evidence on the emergence of antibiotic resistance among L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products and the possible ways this resistance has developed. Furthermore, the resistance of food L. monocytogenes isolates to antibiotics currently used in the treatment of human listeriosis such as penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, and gentamicin, has been documented. Acquisition of movable genetic elements is considered the major mechanism of antibiotic resistance development in L. monocytogenes. Efflux pumps have also been linked with resistance of L. monocytogenes to some antibiotics including fluoroquinolones. Some L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products are intrinsically resistant to several antibiotics. However, factors in food processing chains and environments (from farm to table) including extensive or sub-inhibitory antibiotics use, horizontal gene transfer, exposure to environmental stresses, biofilm formation, and presence of persister cells play crucial roles in the development of antibiotic resistance by L. monocytogenes.
125 citations
TL;DR: This investigation showed that in a middle-income country with a high prevalence of HIV infection, L. monocytogenes caused disproportionate illness among pregnant girls and women and HIV-infected persons.
Abstract: Background An outbreak of listeriosis was identified in South Africa in 2017. The source was unknown. Methods We conducted epidemiologic, trace-back, and environmental investigations and u...
125 citations
References
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TL;DR: Each year, 31 pathogens caused 9.4 million episodes of foodborne illness, resulting in 55,961 hospitalizations and 1,351 deaths in the United States.
Abstract: Estimates of foodborne illness can be used to direct food safety policy and interventions. We used data from active and passive surveillance and other sources to estimate that each year 31 major pathogens acquired in the United States caused 9.4 million episodes of foodborne illness (90% credible interval [CrI] 6.6–12.7 million), 55,961 hospitalizations (90% CrI 39,534–75,741), and 1,351 deaths (90% CrI 712–2,268). Most (58%) illnesses were caused by norovirus, followed by nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. (11%), Clostridium perfringens (10%), and Campylobacter spp. (9%). Leading causes of hospitalization were nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. (35%), norovirus (26%), Campylobacter spp. (15%), and Toxoplasma gondii (8%). Leading causes of death were nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. (28%), T. gondii (24%), Listeria monocytogenes (19%), and norovirus (11%). These estimates cannot be compared with prior (1999) estimates to assess trends because different methods were used. Additional data and more refined methods can improve future estimates.
6,490 citations
01 Jan 2011
TL;DR: The European Food Safety Authority and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control have analyzed the information on the occurrence of zoonoses and food-borne outbreaks in 2009 submitted by 27 European Union Member States as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: European Union Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Food-borne Outbreaks in 2009 DTU Orbit (13/08/2019) European Food Safety Authority, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control; The European Union Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Food-borne Outbreaks in 2009 The European Food Safety Authority and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control have analysed the information on the occurrence of zoonoses and food-borne outbreaks in 2009 submitted by 27 European Union Member States. In 2009, 108,614 salmonellosis cases in humans were reported and the statistically significant decreasing trend in the case numbers continued. Eighteen Member States reached the European Union Salmonella reduction target for breeding flocks of fowl, 17 Member States met their reduction target for laying hens and 18 Member States met the reduction target for broilers. In foodstuffs, Salmonella was most often detected in fresh poultry and pig meat. Campylobacteriosis was the most commonly reported zoonosis with 198,252 human cases. Campylobacter was most often detected in fresh broiler meat. The number of listeriosis cases in humans increased by 19.1 % compared to 2008, with 1,645 cases in 2009. Listeria was seldom detected above the legal safety limit from ready-to-eat foods. Member States reported 3,573 verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC), 7,595 yersiniosis and 401 brucellosis cases in humans, while VTEC bacteria were mostly found from cattle and bovine meat and Yersinia from pigs and pig meat. Brucellosis and tuberculosis decreased in cattle, sheep and goat populations. In humans 1,987 Q fever cases were detected and Q fever was found in domestic ruminants. Trichinellosis and echinococcosis caused 748 and 790 human cases, respectively, and Trichinella and Echinococcus were mainly detected in wildlife. There were 1,259 human cases of toxoplasmosis reported and in animals Toxoplasma was most often found in sheep and goats. Rabies was recorded in one person in the European Union and the disease was also found in animals. Most of the 5,550 reported food-borne outbreaks were caused by Salmonella, viruses and bacterial toxins and the most important food sources were eggs, mixed or buffet meals and pig meat.
1,809 citations
TL;DR: Current progress in understanding the general features of virulence and pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes is discussed and areas of special relevance to the organism's involvement in human foodborne illness are focused on.
700 citations
TL;DR: The information presented in this paper provides the basis for the establishment of an environmental sampling program, the organization and interpretation of the data generated by this program, and the response to Listeria-positive results.
682 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed that there are no strains of Listeria monocytogenes with unique properties that lead to persistence, but harborage sites in food industry premises and equipment where L. monocyTogenes can persist and that when a low initial bacterial charge is applied, early cleaning and disinfection is the only way to avoid persistence.
681 citations