A Short Scale for Measuring Loneliness in Large Surveys: Results From Two Population-Based Studies.
TL;DR: A short loneliness scale developed specifically for use on a telephone survey is described, finding that objective and subjective isolation are related, indicating that the quantitative and qualitative aspects of social relationships are distinct.
Abstract: Most studies of social relationships in later life focus on the amount of social contact, not on individuals' perceptions of social isolation. However, loneliness is likely to be an important aspect of aging. A major limiting factor in studying loneliness has been the lack of a measure suitable for large-scale social surveys. This article describes a short loneliness scale developed specifically for use on a telephone survey. The scale has three items and a simplified set of response categories but appears to measure overall loneliness quite well. The authors also document the relationship between loneliness and several commonly used measures of objective social isolation. As expected, they find that objective and subjective isolation are related. However, the relationship is relatively modest, indicating that the quantitative and qualitative aspects of social relationships are distinct. This result suggests the importance of studying both dimensions of social relationships in the aging process.
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TL;DR: Overall, the influence of both objective and subjective social isolation on risk for mortality is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality.
Abstract: Actual and perceived social isolation are both associated with increased risk for early mortality. In this meta-analytic review, our objective is to establish the overall and relative magnitude of social isolation and loneliness and to examine possible moderators. We conducted a literature search of studies (January 1980 to February 2014) using MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Social Work Abstracts, and Google Scholar. The included studies provided quantitative data on mortality as affected by loneliness, social isolation, or living alone. Across studies in which several possible confounds were statistically controlled for, the weighted average effect sizes were as follows: social isolation odds ratio (OR) = 1.29, loneliness OR = 1.26, and living alone OR = 1.32, corresponding to an average of 29%, 26%, and 32% increased likelihood of mortality, respectively. We found no differences between measures of objective and subjective social isolation. Results remain consistent across gender, length of follow-up, and world region, but initial health status has an influence on the findings. Results also differ across participant age, with social deficits being more predictive of death in samples with an average age younger than 65 years. Overall, the influence of both objective and subjective social isolation on risk for mortality is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality.
3,157 citations
Cites background from "A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..."
...Although many studies indicate that loneliness differs across marital status (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Hughes et al., 2004; Victor & Bowling, 2012) and that marital status is significantly associated with mortality (Roelfs, Shor, Kalish, & Yogev, 2011), we did not include marital status as an indicator of social isolation because being unmarried does not necessarily mean that one is socially isolated, living alone, or lonely....
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...Although many studies indicate that loneliness differs across marital status (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Hughes et al., 2004; Victor & Bowling, 2012) and that marital status is significantly associated with mortality (Roelfs, Shor, Kalish, & Yogev, 2011), we did not include marital status as an…...
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TL;DR: It is suggested that loneliness and depressive symptomatology can act in a synergistic effect to diminish well-being in middle-aged and older adults.
Abstract: The extent to which loneliness is a unique risk factor for depressive symptoms was determined in 2 population-based studies of middle-aged to older adults, and the possible causal influences between loneliness and depressive symptoms were examined longitudinally in the 2nd study. In Study 1, a nationally representative sample of persons aged 54 and older completed a telephone interview as part of a study of health and aging. Higher levels of loneliness were associated with more depressive symptoms, net of the effects of age, gender, ethnicity, education, income, marital status, social support, and perceived stress. In Study 2, detailed measures of loneliness, social support, perceived stress, hostility, and demographic characteristics were collected over a 3-year period from a population-based sample of adults ages 50-67 years from Cook County, Illinois. Loneliness was again associated with more depressive symptoms, net of demographic covariates, marital status, social support, hostility, and perceived stress. Latent variable growth models revealed reciprocal influences over time between loneliness and depressive symptomatology. These data suggest that loneliness and depressive symptomatology can act in a synergistic effect to diminish well-being in middle-aged and older adults.
1,722 citations
Cites background or methods or result from "A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..."
...As described in Hughes et al. (2004), the characteristics of the Study 2 sample closely matched characteristics of urban respondents to the HRS....
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...0001) with the full Loneliness scale given in Study 2 (Hughes et al., 2004)....
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...In Study 1, we assessed loneliness using a three-item scale (Hughes et al., 2004) designed to gauge feelings of social isolation within the constraints of a short telephone interview....
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...The coefficient alpha in the sample was .73, and the total score correlated well (r .82, p .0001) with the full Loneliness scale given in Study 2 (Hughes et al., 2004)....
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...Being married has been found to have protective health effects (Waite & Gallagher, 2001) and to predict lower levels of loneliness (Barbour, 1993; Hughes et al., 2004; Tornstam, 1992)....
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TL;DR: It was found that mortality was higher among more socially isolated and more lonely participants, and the effect of loneliness was not independent of demographic characteristics or health problems and did not contribute to the risk associated with social isolation.
Abstract: Both social isolation and loneliness are associated with increased mortality, but it is uncertain whether their effects are independent or whether loneliness represents the emotional pathway through which social isolation impairs health. We therefore assessed the extent to which the association between social isolation and mortality is mediated by loneliness. We assessed social isolation in terms of contact with family and friends and participation in civic organizations in 6,500 men and women aged 52 and older who took part in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing in 2004–2005. A standard questionnaire measure of loneliness was administered also. We monitored all-cause mortality up to March 2012 (mean follow-up 7.25 y) and analyzed results using Cox proportional hazards regression. We found that mortality was higher among more socially isolated and more lonely participants. However, after adjusting statistically for demographic factors and baseline health, social isolation remained significantly associated with mortality (hazard ratio 1.26, 95% confidence interval, 1.08–1.48 for the top quintile of isolation), but loneliness did not (hazard ratio 0.92, 95% confidence interval, 0.78–1.09). The association of social isolation with mortality was unchanged when loneliness was included in the model. Both social isolation and loneliness were associated with increased mortality. However, the effect of loneliness was not independent of demographic characteristics or health problems and did not contribute to the risk associated with social isolation. Although both isolation and loneliness impair quality of life and well-being, efforts to reduce isolation are likely to be more relevant to mortality.
1,584 citations
Cites background or methods from "A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..."
...We measured loneliness with the three-item short form of the Revised UCLA loneliness scale (29)....
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...9%) loneliness scores on the short form of the Revised University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) loneliness scale (29)....
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TL;DR: The extent to which social disconnectedness and perceived isolation have distinct associations with physical and mental health among older adults is examined and it is concluded that health researchers need to consider social disconnectednesses and perceived isolatedness simultaneously.
Abstract: Previous research has identified a wide range of indicators of social isolation that pose health risks, including living alone, having a small social network, infrequent participation in social activities, and feelings of loneliness. However multiple forms of isolation are rarely studied together making it difficult to determine which aspects of isolation are most deleterious for health. Using population-based data from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project, we combine multiple indicators of social isolation into scales assessing social disconnectedness (e.g., small social network, infrequent participation in social activities) and perceived isolation (e.g., loneliness, perceived lack of social support). We examine the extent to which social disconnectedness and perceived isolation have distinct associations with physical and mental health among older adults. Results indicate that social disconnectedness and perceived isolation are independently associated with lower levels of self-rated physical health. However, the association between disconnectedness and mental health may operate through the strong relationship between perceived isolation and mental health. We conclude that health researchers need to consider social disconnectedness and perceived isolation simultaneously.
1,529 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors empirically tested a shortened version of the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale on data from two surveys (N = 9,448). Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the specification of two latent factors.
Abstract: Loneliness is an indicator of social well-being and pertains to the feeling of missing an intimate relationship (emotional loneliness) or missing a wider social network (social loneliness). The 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale has proved to be a valid and reliable measurement instrument for overall, emotional, and social loneliness, although its length has sometimes rendered it difficult to use in large surveys. In this study, the authors empirically tested a shortened version of the scale on data from two surveys (N = 9,448). Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the specification of two latent factors. Congruent validity and the relationship with determinants (partner status, health) proved to be optimal. The 6-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale is a reliable and valid measurement instrument for overall, emotional, and social loneliness that is suitable for large surveys.
913 citations
Cites background or methods from "A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..."
...In developing a shortened version of the scale, we explicitly took into account the threefold use of the original 11-item loneliness scale: to measure overall loneliness and to measure emotional and social loneliness, in contrast to the (shortened) unidimensional UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hughes et al. 2004; Russell 1996)....
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...The first is the revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell 1996; Russell, Peplau, and Cutrona 1980), consisting of 20 items, and its shorter version, the 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hughes et al. 2004)....
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...…version of the scale, we explicitly took into account the threefold use of the original 11-item loneliness scale: to measure overall loneliness and to measure emotional and social loneliness, in contrast to the (shortened) unidimensional UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hughes et al. 2004; Russell 1996)....
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...A characteristic of this approach to loneliness is its emphasis on the discrepancy between what one wants in terms of interpersonal affection and intimacy and what one has; the greater the discrepancy, the greater the loneliness....
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References
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TL;DR: Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation, and people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds.
Abstract: A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.
17,492 citations
"A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..." refers background in this paper
...In fact, our desire for social connections seems so strong that some authors have suggested that humans have a basic need to belong (Baumeister and Leary 1995)....
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...When one’s intimate and social needs are not adequately met, a complex set of feelings termed loneliness occurs that motivates one to seek the fulfillment of these needs (Baumeister and Leary 1995; Weiss 1973)....
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TL;DR: The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts.
Abstract: The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
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17 Feb 1998
TL;DR: The authors of as discussed by the authors stated that much of the decline associated with old age has more to do with lifestyle than aging, and that social interaction is a powerful safeguard of emotional well-being.
Abstract: Much of the decline associated with old age has more to do with lifestyle than aging. The old adage that says "you lose it if you don't use it" is true. In order to maintain and promote cognitive wellness, Carol Miller, a gerontologist, in her book "Wellness In Older Adults" states that engaging in new learning experiences, participating in challenging leisure activities, and preserving and continuing social relationships with friends and family members is imperative to total wellness. Dr. Andrew Weil in his book "Spontaneous Healing" states, "We humans are social animals. Reach out to others. Make social interaction a priority. It is a powerful safeguard of emotional well-being."
4,531 citations
TL;DR: The authors show that the perception of time is malleable, and social goals change in both younger and older people when time constraints are imposed and suggest potential implications for multiple subdisciplines and research interests.
Abstract: Socioemotional selectivity theory claims that the perception of time plays a fundamental role in the selection and pursuit of social goals. According to the theory, social motives fall into 1 of 2 general categories--those related to the acquisition of knowledge and those related to the regulation of emotion. When time is perceived as open-ended, knowledge-related goals are prioritized. In contrast, when time is perceived as limited, emotional goals assume primacy. The inextricable association between time left in life and chronological age ensures age-related differences in social goals. Nonetheless, the authors show that the perception of time is malleable, and social goals change in both younger and older people when time constraints are imposed. The authors argue that time perception is integral to human motivation and suggest potential implications for multiple subdisciplines and research interests in social, developmental, cultural, cognitive, and clinical psychology.
3,874 citations
"A Short Scale for Measuring Lonelin..." refers background in this paper
...…relationships decreases, and social events triggering significant disruptions in social ties (e.g., death of a parent, children leaving home, relocation, death of a spouse) may increase (e.g., Carstensen, Isaacowitz, and Charles 1999; Martire et al. 1999; Rowe and Kahn 1997; van Tilberg 1998)....
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TL;DR: The authors presented a revised version of the self-report UCLA Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reported concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure.
Abstract: The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
3,266 citations