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A Survey of Motion Planning and Control Techniques for Self-driving Urban Vehicles
TL;DR: The objective of this paper is to survey the current state of the art on planning and control algorithms with particular regard to the urban setting and to gain insight into the strengths and limitations of the reviewed approaches.
Abstract: Self-driving vehicles are a maturing technology with the potential to reshape mobility by enhancing the safety, accessibility, efficiency, and convenience of automotive transportation. Safety-critical tasks that must be executed by a self-driving vehicle include planning of motions through a dynamic environment shared with other vehicles and pedestrians, and their robust executions via feedback control. The objective of this paper is to survey the current state of the art on planning and control algorithms with particular regard to the urban setting. A selection of proposed techniques is reviewed along with a discussion of their effectiveness. The surveyed approaches differ in the vehicle mobility model used, in assumptions on the structure of the environment, and in computational requirements. The side-by-side comparison presented in this survey helps to gain insight into the strengths and limitations of the reviewed approaches and assists with system level design choices.
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18 Oct 2017
TL;DR: This work introduces CARLA, an open-source simulator for autonomous driving research, and uses it to study the performance of three approaches to autonomous driving: a classic modular pipeline, an end-to-end model trained via imitation learning, and an end to-end models trained via reinforcement learning.
Abstract: We introduce CARLA, an open-source simulator for autonomous driving research. CARLA has been developed from the ground up to support development, training, and validation of autonomous urban driving systems. In addition to open-source code and protocols, CARLA provides open digital assets (urban layouts, buildings, vehicles) that were created for this purpose and can be used freely. The simulation platform supports flexible specification of sensor suites and environmental conditions. We use CARLA to study the performance of three approaches to autonomous driving: a classic modular pipeline, an end-to-end model trained via imitation learning, and an end-to-end model trained via reinforcement learning. The approaches are evaluated in controlled scenarios of increasing difficulty, and their performance is examined via metrics provided by CARLA, illustrating the platform's utility for autonomous driving research. The supplementary video can be viewed at this https URL
1,539 citations
Cites background or result from "A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..."
...This is true for classic modular pipelines [21, 8] and even more so for datahungry deep learning techniques....
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...Its most difficult form is navigation in densely populated urban environments [21]....
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...This architecture is in line with most existing autonomous driving systems [21, 8]....
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21 May 2018
TL;DR: This work evaluates different architectures for conditional imitation learning in vision-based driving and conducts experiments in realistic three-dimensional simulations of urban driving and on a 1/5 scale robotic truck that is trained to drive in a residential area.
Abstract: Deep networks trained on demonstrations of human driving have learned to follow roads and avoid obstacles. However, driving policies trained via imitation learning cannot be controlled at test time. A vehicle trained end-to-end to imitate an expert cannot be guided to take a specific turn at an upcoming intersection. This limits the utility of such systems. We propose to condition imitation learning on high-level command input. At test time, the learned driving policy functions as a chauffeur that handles sensorimotor coordination but continues to respond to navigational commands. We evaluate different architectures for conditional imitation learning in vision-based driving. We conduct experiments in realistic three-dimensional simulations of urban driving and on a 1/5 scale robotic truck that is trained to drive in a residential area. Both systems drive based on visual input yet remain responsive to high-level navigational commands.
901 citations
Cites background from "A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..."
...Autonomous driving is the subject of intensive research [25]....
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TL;DR: The technical aspect of automated driving is surveyed, with an overview of available datasets and tools for ADS development and many state-of-the-art algorithms implemented and compared on their own platform in a real-world driving setting.
Abstract: Automated driving systems (ADSs) promise a safe, comfortable and efficient driving experience. However, fatalities involving vehicles equipped with ADSs are on the rise. The full potential of ADSs cannot be realized unless the robustness of state-of-the-art is improved further. This paper discusses unsolved problems and surveys the technical aspect of automated driving. Studies regarding present challenges, high-level system architectures, emerging methodologies and core functions including localization, mapping, perception, planning, and human machine interfaces, were thoroughly reviewed. Furthermore, many state-of-the-art algorithms were implemented and compared on our own platform in a real-world driving setting. The paper concludes with an overview of available datasets and tools for ADS development.
851 citations
Cites background from "A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..."
...[20] X X X X X [21] X X X [22] X X [23] X [24] X X X X [25] X X X [26] X [27] X X X X X [28] X X X X Ours X X X X X X X X X...
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...There are overview papers on the subject, which covered several core functions [20], [21], and which concentrated on the motion planning aspect [22], [23]....
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...For more detailed studies of this topic [22], [27], [244] can be referred....
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TL;DR: This review summarises deep reinforcement learning algorithms, provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, highlights the key challenges algorithmically as well as in terms of deployment of real world autonomous driving agents, the role of simulators in training agents, and finally methods to evaluate, test and robustifying existing solutions in RL and imitation learning.
Abstract: With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.
740 citations
Cites methods from "A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..."
...While the family of MPC methods aim to stabilize the behavior of the vehicle while tracking the specified path [14]....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors survey the current state-of-the-art on deep learning technologies used in autonomous driving, including convolutional and recurrent neural networks, as well as the deep reinforcement learning paradigm.
Abstract: The last decade witnessed increasingly rapid progress in self-driving vehicle technology, mainly backed up by advances in the area of deep learning and artificial intelligence. The objective of this paper is to survey the current state-of-the-art on deep learning technologies used in autonomous driving. We start by presenting AI-based self-driving architectures, convolutional and recurrent neural networks, as well as the deep reinforcement learning paradigm. These methodologies form a base for the surveyed driving scene perception, path planning, behavior arbitration and motion control algorithms. We investigate both the modular perception-planning-action pipeline, where each module is built using deep learning methods, as well as End2End systems, which directly map sensory information to steering commands. Additionally, we tackle current challenges encountered in designing AI architectures for autonomous driving, such as their safety, training data sources and computational hardware. The comparison presented in this survey helps to gain insight into the strengths and limitations of deep learning and AI approaches for autonomous driving and assist with design choices
626 citations
References
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TL;DR: A tree is a graph with one and only one path between every two nodes, where at least one path exists between any two nodes and the length of each branch is given.
Abstract: We consider n points (nodes), some or all pairs of which are connected by a branch; the length of each branch is given. We restrict ourselves to the case where at least one path exists between any two nodes. We now consider two problems. Problem 1. Constrnct the tree of minimum total length between the n nodes. (A tree is a graph with one and only one path between every two nodes.) In the course of the construction that we present here, the branches are subdivided into three sets: I. the branches definitely assignec~ to the tree under construction (they will form a subtree) ; II. the branches from which the next branch to be added to set I, will be selected ; III. the remaining branches (rejected or not yet considered). The nodes are subdivided into two sets: A. the nodes connected by the branches of set I, B. the remaining nodes (one and only one branch of set II will lead to each of these nodes), We start the construction by choosing an arbitrary node as the only member of set A, and by placing all branches that end in this node in set II. To start with, set I is empty. From then onwards we perform the following two steps repeatedly. Step 1. The shortest branch of set II is removed from this set and added to
22,704 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1995
12,671 citations
"A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..." refers methods in this paper
...2) [68]b No Cyl. algebr. decomp. [76] No diff. constraints Yes No Exp. in dimension. [65] No Variational Methods Variational methods (Sec IV-C) Lipschitz-continuous Jacobian No Locally optimal O(1=) [77]k;l Yes Graph-search Methods Road lane graph + Dijkstra (Sec IV-D1) Arbitrary Noc Nod O(n+ mlog ) [78]e;f No Lattice/tree of motion prim. + Dijkstra (Sec IV-E) Arbitrary Noc Nod O(n+ mlog ) [78]e;f No...
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TL;DR: How heuristic information from the problem domain can be incorporated into a formal mathematical theory of graph searching is described and an optimality property of a class of search strategies is demonstrated.
Abstract: Although the problem of determining the minimum cost path through a graph arises naturally in a number of interesting applications, there has been no underlying theory to guide the development of efficient search procedures. Moreover, there is no adequate conceptual framework within which the various ad hoc search strategies proposed to date can be compared. This paper describes how heuristic information from the problem domain can be incorporated into a formal mathematical theory of graph searching and demonstrates an optimality property of a class of search strategies.
10,366 citations
"A Survey of Motion Planning and Con..." refers methods in this paper
...The most prominent heuristic search algorithm is A* developed by Hart, Nilsson and Raphael [112]....
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TL;DR: This review focuses on model predictive control of constrained systems, both linear and nonlinear, and distill from an extensive literature essential principles that ensure stability to present a concise characterization of most of the model predictive controllers that have been proposed in the literature.
8,064 citations