A survey on sensor networks
TL;DR: The current state of the art of sensor networks is captured in this article, where solutions are discussed under their related protocol stack layer sections.
Abstract: The advancement in wireless communications and electronics has enabled the development of low-cost sensor networks. The sensor networks can be used for various application areas (e.g., health, military, home). For different application areas, there are different technical issues that researchers are currently resolving. The current state of the art of sensor networks is captured in this article, where solutions are discussed under their related protocol stack layer sections. This article also points out the open research issues and intends to spark new interests and developments in this field.
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TL;DR: This survey presents a comprehensive review of the recent literature since the publication of a survey on sensor networks, and gives an overview of several new applications and then reviews the literature on various aspects of WSNs.
5,626 citations
Cites background from "A survey on sensor networks"
...As opposite to terrestrial WSNs, underwater sensor nodes are more expensive and fewer sensor nodes are deployed....
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...Following a top-down approach, we give an overview of several new applications and then review the literature on various aspects of WSNs....
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...Current WSNs are deployed on land, underground, and underwater....
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...Introduction may be attached to the sensor node to measure properties Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have gained worldwide attention in recent years, particularly with the proliferation in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) technology which has facilitated the development of smart sensors....
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...WSNs have the potential to enhance and change the way people interact with technology and the world....
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TL;DR: A survey of state-of-the-art routing techniques in WSNs is presented and the design trade-offs between energy and communication overhead savings in every routing paradigm are studied.
Abstract: Wireless sensor networks consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing, power management, and data dissemination protocols have been specifically designed for WSNs where energy awareness is an essential design issue. Routing protocols in WSNs might differ depending on the application and network architecture. In this article we present a survey of state-of-the-art routing techniques in WSNs. We first outline the design challenges for routing protocols in WSNs followed by a comprehensive survey of routing techniques. Overall, the routing techniques are classified into three categories based on the underlying network structure: flit, hierarchical, and location-based routing. Furthermore, these protocols can be classified into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, and coherent-based depending on the protocol operation. We study the design trade-offs between energy and communication overhead savings in every routing paradigm. We also highlight the advantages and performance issues of each routing technique. The article concludes with possible future research areas.
4,701 citations
TL;DR: A theoretical framework for design and analysis of distributed flocking algorithms, and shows that migration of flocks can be performed using a peer-to-peer network of agents, i.e., "flocks need no leaders."
Abstract: In this paper, we present a theoretical framework for design and analysis of distributed flocking algorithms. Two cases of flocking in free-space and presence of multiple obstacles are considered. We present three flocking algorithms: two for free-flocking and one for constrained flocking. A comprehensive analysis of the first two algorithms is provided. We demonstrate the first algorithm embodies all three rules of Reynolds. This is a formal approach to extraction of interaction rules that lead to the emergence of collective behavior. We show that the first algorithm generically leads to regular fragmentation, whereas the second and third algorithms both lead to flocking. A systematic method is provided for construction of cost functions (or collective potentials) for flocking. These collective potentials penalize deviation from a class of lattice-shape objects called /spl alpha/-lattices. We use a multi-species framework for construction of collective potentials that consist of flock-members, or /spl alpha/-agents, and virtual agents associated with /spl alpha/-agents called /spl beta/- and /spl gamma/-agents. We show that migration of flocks can be performed using a peer-to-peer network of agents, i.e., "flocks need no leaders." A "universal" definition of flocking for particle systems with similarities to Lyapunov stability is given. Several simulation results are provided that demonstrate performing 2-D and 3-D flocking, split/rejoin maneuver, and squeezing maneuver for hundreds of agents using the proposed algorithms.
4,693 citations
Cites background from "A survey on sensor networks"
...The topology of a wireless sensor network with a radio range is a proximity net [14]....
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TL;DR: This paper surveys context awareness from an IoT perspective and addresses a broad range of techniques, methods, models, functionalities, systems, applications, and middleware solutions related to context awareness and IoT.
Abstract: As we are moving towards the Internet of Things (IoT), the number of sensors deployed around the world is growing at a rapid pace. Market research has shown a significant growth of sensor deployments over the past decade and has predicted a significant increment of the growth rate in the future. These sensors continuously generate enormous amounts of data. However, in order to add value to raw sensor data we need to understand it. Collection, modelling, reasoning, and distribution of context in relation to sensor data plays critical role in this challenge. Context-aware computing has proven to be successful in understanding sensor data. In this paper, we survey context awareness from an IoT perspective. We present the necessary background by introducing the IoT paradigm and context-aware fundamentals at the beginning. Then we provide an in-depth analysis of context life cycle. We evaluate a subset of projects (50) which represent the majority of research and commercial solutions proposed in the field of context-aware computing conducted over the last decade (2001-2011) based on our own taxonomy. Finally, based on our evaluation, we highlight the lessons to be learnt from the past and some possible directions for future research. The survey addresses a broad range of techniques, methods, models, functionalities, systems, applications, and middleware solutions related to context awareness and IoT. Our goal is not only to analyse, compare and consolidate past research work but also to appreciate their findings and discuss their applicability towards the IoT.
2,542 citations
Cites background from "A survey on sensor networks"
...The differences are comprehensively discussed in [39]....
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...the needs of the IoT individually [39], though they can complement the IoT infrastructure....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors survey the literature till 2011 on the enabling technologies for the Smart Grid and explore three major systems, namely the smart infrastructure system, the smart management system, and the smart protection system.
Abstract: The Smart Grid, regarded as the next generation power grid, uses two-way flows of electricity and information to create a widely distributed automated energy delivery network. In this article, we survey the literature till 2011 on the enabling technologies for the Smart Grid. We explore three major systems, namely the smart infrastructure system, the smart management system, and the smart protection system. We also propose possible future directions in each system. colorred{Specifically, for the smart infrastructure system, we explore the smart energy subsystem, the smart information subsystem, and the smart communication subsystem.} For the smart management system, we explore various management objectives, such as improving energy efficiency, profiling demand, maximizing utility, reducing cost, and controlling emission. We also explore various management methods to achieve these objectives. For the smart protection system, we explore various failure protection mechanisms which improve the reliability of the Smart Grid, and explore the security and privacy issues in the Smart Grid.
2,433 citations
References
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04 Jan 2000
TL;DR: The Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) as mentioned in this paper is a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster based station (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network.
Abstract: Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable the reliable monitoring of a variety of environments for both civil and military applications. In this paper, we look at communication protocols, which can have significant impact on the overall energy dissipation of these networks. Based on our findings that the conventional protocols of direct transmission, minimum-transmission-energy, multi-hop routing, and static clustering may not be optimal for sensor networks, we propose LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster based station (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network. LEACH uses localized coordination to enable scalability and robustness for dynamic networks, and incorporates data fusion into the routing protocol to reduce the amount of information that must be transmitted to the base station. Simulations show the LEACH can achieve as much as a factor of 8 reduction in energy dissipation compared with conventional outing protocols. In addition, LEACH is able to distribute energy dissipation evenly throughout the sensors, doubling the useful system lifetime for the networks we simulated.
12,497 citations
01 Jan 2000
TL;DR: LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster based station (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network, is proposed.
Abstract: Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable the reliable monitoring of a variety of environments for both civil and military applications. In this paper, we look at communication protocols, which can have signicant impact on the overall energy dissipation of these networks. Based on our ndings that the conventional protocols of direct transmission, minimum-transmission-energy, multihop routing, and static clustering may not be optimal for sensor networks, we propose LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster base stations (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network. LEACH uses localized coordination to enable scalability and robustness for dynamic networks, and incorporates data fusion into the routing protocol to reduce the amount of information that must be transmitted to the base station. Simulations show that LEACH can achieve as much as a factor of 8 reduction in energy dissipation compared with conventional routing protocols. In addition, LEACH is able to distribute energy dissipation evenly throughout the sensors, doubling the useful system lifetime for the networks we simulated.
11,412 citations
"A survey on sensor networks" refers background or methods in this paper
...mAMPS [8] Framework for implementing adaptive http://www-mtl.mit.edu/research/icsystems/uamps/ energy-aware distributed microsensors. LEACH [ 16 ] Cluster formation protocol....
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...For example, sensor node E aggregates the data from sensor nodes A and B while sensor node F aggregates the data from sensor nodes C and D, as shown in Fig. 4b. Data aggregation can be perceived as a set of automated methods of combining the data that comes from many sensor nodes into a set of meaningful information [ 16 ]....
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...LEACH [ 16 ] Forms clusters to minimize energy dissipation...
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...Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) is a clustering-based protocol that minimizes energy dissipation in sensor networks [ 16 ]....
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TL;DR: When n identical randomly located nodes, each capable of transmitting at W bits per second and using a fixed range, form a wireless network, the throughput /spl lambda/(n) obtainable by each node for a randomly chosen destination is /spl Theta/(W//spl radic/(nlogn)) bits persecond under a noninterference protocol.
Abstract: When n identical randomly located nodes, each capable of transmitting at W bits per second and using a fixed range, form a wireless network, the throughput /spl lambda/(n) obtainable by each node for a randomly chosen destination is /spl Theta/(W//spl radic/(nlogn)) bits per second under a noninterference protocol. If the nodes are optimally placed in a disk of unit area, traffic patterns are optimally assigned, and each transmission's range is optimally chosen, the bit-distance product that can be transported by the network per second is /spl Theta/(W/spl radic/An) bit-meters per second. Thus even under optimal circumstances, the throughput is only /spl Theta/(W//spl radic/n) bits per second for each node for a destination nonvanishingly far away. Similar results also hold under an alternate physical model where a required signal-to-interference ratio is specified for successful receptions. Fundamentally, it is the need for every node all over the domain to share whatever portion of the channel it is utilizing with nodes in its local neighborhood that is the reason for the constriction in capacity. Splitting the channel into several subchannels does not change any of the results. Some implications may be worth considering by designers. Since the throughput furnished to each user diminishes to zero as the number of users is increased, perhaps networks connecting smaller numbers of users, or featuring connections mostly with nearby neighbors, may be more likely to be find acceptance.
9,008 citations
"A survey on sensor networks" refers methods in this paper
...Diffusion routing methods, which rely only upon information at neighboring nodes, are a way to address this [33], although such methods may not achieve the information-theoretic capacity of a spatially distributed wireless network [34]....
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01 Aug 2000
TL;DR: This paper explores and evaluates the use of directed diffusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network and its implications for sensing, communication and computation.
Abstract: Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena. In this paper, we explore the directed diffusion paradigm for such coordination. Directed diffusion is datacentric in that all communication is for named data. All nodes in a directed diffusion-based network are application-aware. This enables diffusion to achieve energy savings by selecting empirically good paths and by caching and processing data in-network. We explore and evaluate the use of directed diffusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network.
6,061 citations
"A survey on sensor networks" refers background or methods in this paper
...SCADDS [3, 5 ] Scalable coordination architectures for deeply http://www.isi.edu/scadds/ distributed and dynamic systems....
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...Directed diffusion [ 5 ] Sets up gradients for data to flow from source to sink during interest dissemination...
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...For attribute based naming, the users are more interested in querying an � Figure 4. a) The power efficiency of the routes; b) an example of data aggregation; c) the SPIN protocol [15]; d) an example of directed diffusion [ 5 ]....
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...They are deployed within tens of feet of each other [ 5 ]....
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...All of these subunits may need to fit into a matchbox-sized module [ 5 ]....
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TL;DR: The WINS network represents a new monitoring and control capability for applications in such industries as transportation, manufacturing, health care, environmental oversight, and safety and security, and opportunities depend on development of a scalable, low-cost, sensor-network architecture.
Abstract: W ireless integrated network sensors (WINS) provide distributed network and Internet access to sensors, controls, and processors deeply embedded in equipment, facilities, and the environment. The WINS network represents a new monitoring and control capability for applications in such industries as transportation, manufacturing, health care, environmental oversight, and safety and security. WINS combine microsensor technology and low-power signal processing, computation, and low-cost wireless networking in a compact system. Recent advances in integrated circuit technology have enabled construction of far more capable yet inexpensive sensors, radios, and processors, allowing mass production of sophisticated systems linking the physical world to digital data networks [2–5]. Scales range from local to global for applications in medicine, security, factory automation, environmental monitoring, and condition-based maintenance. Compact geometry and low cost allow WINS to be embedded and distributed at a fraction of the cost of conventional wireline sensor and actuator systems. WINS opportunities depend on development of a scalable, low-cost, sensor-network architecture. Such applications require delivery of sensor information to the user at a low bit rate through low-power transceivers. Continuous sensor signal processing enables the constant monitoring of events in an environment in which short message packets would suffice. Future applications of distributed embedded processors and sensors will require vast numbers of devices. Conventional methods of sensor networking represent an impractical demand on cable installation and network bandwidth. Processing at the source would drastically reduce the financial, computational, and management burden on communication system
3,415 citations
"A survey on sensor networks" refers background in this paper
...The Wireless Integrated Network Sensors (WINS) architecture [ 6 ] also uses radio links for communication....
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...The required size may be smaller than even a cubic centimeter [ 6 ], which is light enough to remain suspended in the air....
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...Sensor networks have many different application areas, and accessing them through networks such as the Internet is aimed at in some current projects [ 6 ]....
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...WINS [ 6 ] Distributed network and Internet access to sensors, http://www.janet.ucla.edu/WINS/ controls, and processors....
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...In general, the minimum output power required to transmit a signal over a distance d is proportional to d n , where 2 6 ], as is typical in sensor network communication....
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