Journal Article•
A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays
25 Dec 1994-IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems (The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers)-Vol. 77, Iss: 12, pp 1321-1329
TL;DR: Paul Milgram's research interests include display and control issues in telerobotics and virtual environments, stereoscopic video and computer graphics, cognitive engineering, and human factors issues in medicine.
Abstract: Paul Milgram received the BASc degree from the University of Toronto in 1970, the MSEE degree from the Technion (Israel) in 1973 and the PhD degree from the University of Toronto in 1980 From 1980 to 1982 he was a ZWO Visiting Scientist and a NATO Postdoctoral in the Netherlands, researching automobile driving behaviour From 1982 to 1984 he was a Senior Research Engineer in Human Engineering at the National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) in Amsterdam, where his work involved the modelling of aircraft flight crew activity, advanced display concepts and control loops with human operators in space teleoperation Since 1986 he has worked at the Industrial Engineering Department of the University of Toronto, where he is currently an Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Human Factors Engineering group He is also cross appointed to the Department of Psychology In 1993-94 he was an invited researcher at the ATR Communication Systems Research Laboratories, in Kyoto, Japan His research interests include display and control issues in telerobotics and virtual environments, stereoscopic video and computer graphics, cognitive engineering, and human factors issues in medicine He is also President of Translucent Technologies, a company which produces "Plato" liquid crystal visual occlusion spectacles (of which he is the inventor), for visual and psychomotor research
Citations
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TL;DR: The characteristics of augmented reality systems are described, including a detailed discussion of the tradeoffs between optical and video blending approaches, and current efforts to overcome these problems are summarized.
Abstract: This paper surveys the field of augmented reality AR, in which 3D virtual objects are integrated into a 3D real environment in real time. It describes the medical, manufacturing, visualization, path planning, entertainment, and military applications that have been explored. This paper describes the characteristics of augmented reality systems, including a detailed discussion of the tradeoffs between optical and video blending approaches. Registration and sensing errors are two of the biggest problems in building effective augmented reality systems, so this paper summarizes current efforts to overcome these problems. Future directions and areas requiring further research are discussed. This survey provides a starting point for anyone interested in researching or using augmented reality.
8,053 citations
Cites background from "A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual ..."
...AR can be thought of as the "middle ground" between VE (completely synthetic) and telepresence (completely real) (Milgram and Kishino, 1994a; Milgram et al., 1994b)....
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01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: This coherent and comprehensive book unifies material from several sources, including robotics, control theory, artificial intelligence, and algorithms, into planning under differential constraints that arise when automating the motions of virtually any mechanical system.
Abstract: Planning algorithms are impacting technical disciplines and industries around the world, including robotics, computer-aided design, manufacturing, computer graphics, aerospace applications, drug design, and protein folding. This coherent and comprehensive book unifies material from several sources, including robotics, control theory, artificial intelligence, and algorithms. The treatment is centered on robot motion planning but integrates material on planning in discrete spaces. A major part of the book is devoted to planning under uncertainty, including decision theory, Markov decision processes, and information spaces, which are the “configuration spaces” of all sensor-based planning problems. The last part of the book delves into planning under differential constraints that arise when automating the motions of virtually any mechanical system. Developed from courses taught by the author, the book is intended for students, engineers, and researchers in robotics, artificial intelligence, and control theory as well as computer graphics, algorithms, and computational biology.
6,340 citations
TL;DR: This work refers one to the original survey for descriptions of potential applications, summaries of AR system characteristics, and an introduction to the crucial problem of registration, including sources of registration error and error-reduction strategies.
Abstract: In 1997, Azuma published a survey on augmented reality (AR). Our goal is to complement, rather than replace, the original survey by presenting representative examples of the new advances. We refer one to the original survey for descriptions of potential applications (such as medical visualization, maintenance and repair of complex equipment, annotation, and path planning); summaries of AR system characteristics (such as the advantages and disadvantages of optical and video approaches to blending virtual and real, problems in display focus and contrast, and system portability); and an introduction to the crucial problem of registration, including sources of registration error and error-reduction strategies.
3,624 citations
21 Dec 1995
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss augmented reality displays in a general sense, within the context of a reality-virtuality (RV) continuum, encompassing a large class of ''mixed reality'' displays, which also includes augmented virtuality (AV).
Abstract: In this paper we discuss augmented reality (AR) displays in a general sense, within the context of a reality-virtuality (RV) continuum, encompassing a large class of `mixed reality' (MR) displays, which also includes augmented virtuality (AV). MR displays are defined by means of seven examples of existing display concepts in which real objects and virtual objects are juxtaposed. Essential factors which distinguish different MR display systems from each other are presented, first by means of a table in which the nature of the underlying scene, how it is viewed, and the observer's reference to it are compared, and then by means of a three dimensional taxonomic framework comprising: extent of world knowledge, reproduction fidelity, and extent of presence metaphor. A principal objective of the taxonomy is to clarify terminology issues and to provide a framework for classifying research across different disciplines.
1,684 citations
TL;DR: The field of AR is described, including a brief definition and development history, the enabling technologies and their characteristics, and some known limitations regarding human factors in the use of AR systems that developers will need to overcome.
Abstract: We are on the verge of ubiquitously adopting Augmented Reality (AR) technologies to enhance our percep- tion and help us see, hear, and feel our environments in new and enriched ways. AR will support us in fields such as education, maintenance, design and reconnaissance, to name but a few. This paper describes the field of AR, including a brief definition and development history, the enabling technologies and their characteristics. It surveys the state of the art by reviewing some recent applications of AR technology as well as some known limitations regarding human factors in the use of AR systems that developers will need to overcome.
1,526 citations
References
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07 Jan 1992
TL;DR: The authors describe the design and prototyping steps they have taken toward the implementation of a heads-up, see-through, head-mounted display (HUDset), combined with head position sensing and a real world registration system, that will enable cost reductions and efficiency improvements in many of the human-involved operations in aircraft manufacturing.
Abstract: The authors describe the design and prototyping steps they have taken toward the implementation of a heads-up, see-through, head-mounted display (HUDset). Combined with head position sensing and a real world registration system, this technology allows a computer-produced diagram to be superimposed and stabilized on a specific position on a real-world object. Successful development of the HUDset technology will enable cost reductions and efficiency improvements in many of the human-involved operations in aircraft manufacturing, by eliminating templates, formboard diagrams, and other masking devices. >
1,257 citations
"A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual ..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The most prominent use of the term AR in the literature appears to be limited, however, to the Class 3 types of displays outlined above (e.g. Feiner et al, 1993a,b; Caudell & Mizell, 1992; Janin et al, 1993)....
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...HMD's equipped with a see-through capability, with which computer generated graphics can be optically superimposed, using half-silvered mirrors, onto directly viewed real-world scenes (e.g. Bajura et al, 1992; Caudell & Mizell, 1992; Ellis & Bucher, 1992; Feiner et al, 1993a,b; Janin et al, 1993)....
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1,226 citations
TL;DR: The DigitalDesk is built around an ordinary physical desk and can be used as such, but it has extra capabilities, including a video camera mounted above the desk that can detect where the user is pointing, and it can read documents that are placed on the desk.
1,127 citations
"A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual ..." refers background in this paper
...Ishii et al, 1993; Kruger, 1993; Wellner, 1993; Mackay et al, 1993)....
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...…other more inclusive computer augmented environments have been developed in which real data are sensed and used to modify users' interactions with computer mediated worlds beyond conventional dedicated visual displays (e.g. Ishii et al, 1993; Krüger, 1993; Wellner, 1993; Mackay et al, 1993)....
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1,032 citations
"A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual ..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The most prominent use of the term AR in the literature appears to be limited, however, to the Class 3 types of displays outlined above (e.g. Feiner et al, 1993a,b; Caudell & Mizell, 1992; Janin et al, 1993)....
[...]
...HMD's equipped with a see-through capability, with which computer generated graphics can be optically superimposed, using half-silvered mirrors, onto directly viewed real-world scenes (e.g. Bajura et al, 1992; Caudell & Mizell, 1992; Ellis & Bucher, 1992; Feiner et al, 1993a,b; Janin et al, 1993)....
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01 Jul 1992
TL;DR: Initial results which show “live” ultrasound echography data visualized within a pregnant human subject is described, which may have many other applications, e.g., image guided surgical procedures and on location 3D interactive architecture preview.
Abstract: We describe initial results which show “live” ultrasound echography data visualized within a pregnant human subject. The visualization is achieved by using a small video camera mounted in front of a conventional head-mounted display worn by an observer. The camera’s video images are composite with computer-generated ones that contain one or more 2D ultrasound images properly transformed to the observer’s current viewing position. As the observer walks around the subject. the ultrasound images appear stationary in 3-space within the subject. This kind of enhancement of the observer’s vision may have many other applications, e.g., image guided surgical procedures and on location 3D interactive architecture preview. CR Categories: 1.3.7 [Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism] Virtual Reality, 1,3.I [Hardware architecture]: Three-dimensional displays, 1.3.6 [Methodology and Techniques]: Interaction techniques, J.3 ILife and Medical Sciences]: Medical information systems. Additional
726 citations
"A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual ..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The difference between Classes 2 and 4 is that with 4 the displayed world should correspond orthoscopically with the immediate outside real world, thereby creating a "video see-through" system (e.g. Edwards et al, 1993; Fuchs et al, 1993), analogous with the optical see-through of option 3....
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...If the scanned and reconstructed medical data were then to be superimposed upon a (video) image of the patient whence the data were taken, as in Fuchs et al (1993), the computer would have to have a model of not only how the reconstructed sampled data relate to each other, but also where…...
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