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Journal ArticleDOI

A Tentative Exploration of the Effects of Brexit on Foreign Direct Investment Vis-À-Vis the United Kingdom

TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of the Brexit June 2016 referendum outcome and its aftermath on UK-related FDI activity are investigated. But the authors focus on greenfield FDI, a very favored form of FDI.
Abstract: European Union (EU) integration has boosted inward EU foreign direct investment (FDI) into the United Kingdom (UK). Within the EU, the UK has a relatively significant stock of inward FDI, having reached 61% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2017 and risen strongly since 2005. The exit of the UK from the EU and the Single Market will probably result in reduced FDI amongst both investment destinations. The aim of this study is to look at the “real-time” effects of the Brexit June 2016 referendum outcome and its aftermath on UK-related FDI activity. Although FDI flows are notably volatile and biased by periodic non-systematic outliers, and despite some caveats on data sources and availability of time series data, we find tentative evidence of a post-referendum slowdown in gross FDI flows between the UK and the EU, notably involving the big EU economies and Ireland. Regarding a very favoured form of FDI, greenfield FDI, we document a post-referendum fall in announced projects and capital expenditures into the UK by both other EU countries as well as one of the most important non-EU partners, the United States. A different approach is also used to analyse the Brexit effect on FDI activity, based on estimating the effect of two successive stages in the European integration process – EU membership and the Euro area launch – and considering Brexit effects as the reversal of the UK integration into the EU. By using a fixed-effect gravity model to estimate the effects of these integration processes on bilateral FDI activity with the UK, the empirical results suggest that, on the one hand, this country played a role as a gateway for a set of international investor countries outside the Euro area to enter European markets and, on the other, it acted as a hub that reallocated these inflows and those coming from Euro countries across the Euro area itself. Thus the disconnection of the UK from the EU may have further implications for FAI than just reverting the effect of EU membership. Larger trade barriers and lower integration between the UK and the Euro area countries’ markets will likely have a negative impact on FDI activity in the UK and might have, in the short run, a negative effect in the Euro area.

Summary (2 min read)

1 Introduction and relevance

  • It is well established that foreign direct investment (FDI) is a source of economic growth and jobs.
  • FDI provides a means for creating direct, stable and long-lasting links between economies.
  • Since 2009, the UK looks more attractive for FDI than the EU, although both have approached their positions as investment destinations more recently .

3.1 Estimating the Brexit effect on FDI

  • As noted above, the formation of the EU coincided with increased FDI activity, while (the anticipation of) Brexit seems to reduce it.
  • Indeed, Brexit effects may be viewed as the reversal of the consequences of the UK integration into the EU.
  • On the other hand, lower barriers to capital mobility and reduced transaction costs can increase vertical FDI.13 Nonetheless, empirical studies tend to fi nd that EU membership and Monetary Union increased FDI infl ows.
  • Empirical studies using this model generally follow two types of econometric methodology: the most traditional one, which includes size and distance variables, and the most recent one, based on the inclusion of fi xed effects to control for unobserved heterogeneity and mitigate biased estimates due to omitted variables.
  • To estimate the “Brexit effect” on FDI fl ows, the authors use a fi xed-effect gravity model in line with Head and Mayer (2014) and UNCTAD and WTO (2016).

3.2 Empirical strategy and data

  • These are usually time-invariant characteristics that may be correlated with the likelihood of forming an FTA and if some of them were omitted in the specifi cation, estimates of β1 could be biased.
  • The use of logs poses the problem that only positive data can be used in the estimation what may lead to a selection bias.
  • Data used covers 34 OECD countries between 1986 and 2013 which are the reporting countries.
  • In their analysis the authors use both because the impact of a trade agreement may be short-lived or more persistent what may give rise to different effects in fl ows and stocks.

3.3 Estimation results

  • The results of estimating equation (3) for both inward fl ows and stocks are presented in Table 1 (fi rst and third columns) while second and fourth column also present the results for outward fl ows and stocks.
  • Dummy variable which is equal to 1 if both reporting and partner countries are members of a free trade agreement, also known as FTA.
  • Dummy variable equal to 1 (since 1999) if the reporting country was an EMU member in 1999 and the partner country is out of EMU (11 countries which are the largest investors in UK), also known as out_EMU_r.
  • Most of the previous estimations results are also obtained with this new procedure that, in general, yields higher values for most of the signifi cant coeffi cients, thus suggesting a negative bias in the previous estimates.

4 Conclusions

  • UK leaving the EU and the Single Market will likely result in reduced FDI activity between the EU and the UK.
  • The gravity equations also point to an extended market effect which increased FDI into the UK from a set of countries outside the Euro area that are global investors.
  • Methodological and compilation issues concerning the measurement of FDI Data on Foreign Direct Investment are compiled and statistics are made available by several international organisations, including amongst other the OECD, the IMF, the European Commission/Eurostat and the ECB, also known as ANNEX.
  • The Benchmark Defi nition recommends that FDI data be presented in two ways: on a straightforward asset/liability basis (i.e. under the asset/liability principle) and refl ecting the direction of direct investment infl uence (i.e. under the directional principle).
  • There may also be fl ows in the reverse direction (when the direct investment enterprise invests or lends funds to its direct investor, but owing less than 10% of its equity, which are then equivalent to the withdrawal of investment) and between fellow enterprises.

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A TENTATIVE EXPLORATION
OF THE EFFECTS OF BREXIT ON
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
VIS-À-VIS THE UNITED KINGDOM
Ana de Almeida, Teresa Sastre,
Duncan van Limbergen and Marco Hoeberichts
Documentos Ocasionales
N.º 1913
2019

A TENTATIVE EXPLORATION OF THE EFFECTS OF BREXIT ON FOREIGN
DIRECT INVESTMENT VIS-À-VIS THE UNITED KINGDOM

A TENTATIVE EXPLORATION OF THE EFFECTS OF BREXIT
ON FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT VIS-À-VIS
THE UNITED KINGDOM
Ana de Almeida
BANCO DE PORTUGAL
Teresa Sastre
BANCO DE ESPAÑA
Duncan van Limbergen and Marco Hoeberichts
DE NEDERLANDSCHE BANK
Documentos Ocasionales. N.º 1913
2019

The Occasional Paper Series seeks to disseminate work conducted at the Banco de España, in the
performance of its functions, that may be of general interest.
The opinions and analyses in the Occasional Paper Series are the responsibility of the authors and,
therefore, do not necessarily coincide with those of the Banco de España or the Eurosystem.
The Banco de España disseminates its main reports and most of its publications via the Internet on its
website at: http://www.bde.es.
Reproduction for educational and non-commercial purposes is permitted provided that the source is
acknowledged.
© BANCO DE ESPAÑA, Madrid, 2019
ISSN: 1696-2230 (on-line edition)

Abstract
European Union (EU) integration has boosted inward EU foreign direct investment (FDI)
into the United Kingdom (UK). Within the EU, the UK has a relatively signicant stock of
inward FDI, having reached 61% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2017 and risen
strongly since 2005. The exit of the UK from the EU and the Single Market will probably
result in reduced FDI amongst both investment destinations. The aim of this study is to look
at the “real-time” effects of the Brexit June 2016 referendum outcome and its aftermath
on UK-related FDI activity. Although FDI ows are notably volatile and biased by periodic
non-systematic outliers, and despite some caveats on data sources and availability of
time series data, we nd tentative evidence of a post-referendum slowdown in gross FDI
ows between the UK and the EU, notably involving the big EU economies and Ireland.
Regarding a very favoured form of FDI, greeneld FDI, we document a post-referendum fall
in announced projects and capital expenditures into the UK by both other EU countries as
well as one of the most important non-EU partners, the United States.
A different approach is also used to analyse the Brexit effect on FDI activity, based on
estimating the effect of two successive stages in the European integration process
– EU membership and the Euro area launch – and considering Brexit effects as the reversal
of the UK integration into the EU. By using a xed-effect gravity model to estimate the
effects of these integration processes on bilateral FDI activity with the UK, the empirical
results suggest that, on the one hand, this country played a role as a gateway for a
set of international investor countries outside the Euro area to enter European markets and,
on the other, it acted as a hub that reallocated these inows and those coming from Euro
countries across the Euro area itself. Thus the disconnection of the UK from the EU may
have further implications for FAI than just reverting the effect of EU membership. Larger
trade barriers and lower integration between the UK and the Euro area countries’ markets
will likely have a negative impact on FDI activity in the UK and might have, in the short run,
a negative effect in the Euro area.
Keywords: foreign direct investment, FDI, Brexit, EU membership, single currency.
JEL classication: F15, F21.

Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the first draft state budget to address the economic and social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is discussed, and the authors calibrate the Budget's main proposals in terms of the fiscal policy stance, the composition and appropriateness of public revenue and expenditure, and risks to meeting the budget deficit target.
Abstract: English abstract: In discussing the first Draft State Budget to address the economic and social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Governor begins with an analysis of the economy’s recent behaviour and how it may evolve in the coming quarters, drawing on the Banco de Espana’s projections. Against this background, he assesses the Government’s macroeconomic forecast underpinning the Draft State Budget. He proceeds to calibrate the Budget’s main proposals in terms of the fiscal policy stance, the composition and appropriateness of public revenue and expenditure, and the risks to meeting the budget deficit target. Lastly, he sets out what he considers to be the key challenges for Spanish fiscal policy in the medium term. Spanish abstract: En la discusion del Proyecto de los primeros Presupuestos Generales del Estado (PGE) que deberan afrontar el impacto economico y social de la pandemia de COVID-19, el gobernador inicia su comparecencia con un analisis del comportamiento reciente de la economia y de su posible evolucion en los proximos trimestres, a la luz de las proyecciones del Banco de Espana. En ese marco, valora el cuadro macroeconomico del Gobierno en el que se apoya el Proyecto de PGE. A continuacion, calibra las principales propuestas del Proyecto en terminos del tono de la politica fiscal, la composicion de los ingresos y gastos publicos y su pertinencia, y los riesgos para el cumplimiento del objetivo de deficit publico. Por ultimo, expone los que considera que son los retos mas importantes para la politica fiscal de Espana en el medio plazo.