A watershed approach to upgrade rainfed agriculture in water scarce regions through Water System Innovations: an integrated research initiative on water for food and rural livelihoods in balance with ecosystem functions
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an integrated approach to agricultural water management, analysing the interactions between the adoption and participatory adaptation of water system innovations (such as water harvesting, drip irrigation, conservation farming, etc.), increased water use in agriculture and water flows to sustain ecological functions that deliver critical ecosystem services to humans.
Abstract: The challenge of producing food for a rapidly increasing population in semi-arid agro-ecosystems in Southern Africa is daunting. More food necessarily means more consumptive use of so-called green water flow (vapour flow sustaining crop growth). Every increase in food production upstream in a watershed will impact on water user and using systems downstream. Intensifying agriculture has in the past often been carried out with negative side effects in terms of land and water degradation. Water legislation is increasingly incorporating the requirement to safeguard a water reserve to sustain instream ecology. To address the challenges of increasing food production, improving rural livelihoods, while safeguarding critical ecological functions, a research programme has recently been launched on “Smallholder System Innovations in Integrated Watershed Management” (SSI). The programme takes an integrated approach to agricultural water management, analysing the interactions between the adoption and participatory adaptation of water system innovations (such as water harvesting, drip irrigation, conservation farming, etc.), increased water use in agriculture and water flows to sustain ecological functions that deliver critical ecosystem services to humans. The research is carried out in the Pangani Basin in Tanzania and the Thukela Basin in South Africa. A nested scale approach is adopted, which will enable the analysis of scale interactions between water management at the farm level, and cascading hydrological impacts at watershed and basin scale. This paper describes the integrated research approach of the SSI programme, and indicates areas of potential to upgrade rainfed agriculture in water scarcity-prone agro-ecosystems while securing water for downstream use.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a Markov-cellular automata model that integrates satellite-derived land use/cover maps and a cellular automata spatial filter to simulate future land use and cover changes up to 2030.
307 citations
TL;DR: In this article, rainwater harvesting and management (RWHM) technologies hold a significant potential for improving rainwater-use efficiency and sustaining rainfed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.
Abstract: Agricultural water scarcity in the predominantly rainfed agricultural system of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is more related to the variability of rainfall and excessive non-productive losses, than the total annual precipitation in the growing season. Less than 15% of the terrestrial precipitation takes the form of productive ‘green’ transpiration. Hence, rainwater harvesting and management (RWHM) technologies hold a significant potential for improving rainwater-use efficiency and sustaining rainfed agriculture in the region. This paper outlines the various RWHM techniques being practiced in SSA, and reviews recent research results on the performance of selected practices. So far, micro-catchment and in situ rainwater harvesting techniques are more common than rainwater irrigation techniques from macro-catchment systems. Depending on rainfall patterns and local soil characteristics, appropriate application of in situ and micro-catchment techniques could improve the soil water content of the rooting zone by up to 30%. Up to sixfold crop yields have been obtained through combinations of rainwater harvesting and fertiliser use, as compared to traditional practices. Supplemental irrigation of rainfed agriculture through rainwater harvesting not only reduces the risk of total crop failure due to dry spells, but also substantially improves water and crop productivity. Depending on the type of crop and the seasonal rainfall pattern, the application of RWHM techniques makes net profits more possible, compared to the meagre profit or net loss of existing systems. Implementation of rainwater harvesting may allow cereal-based smallholder farmers to shift to diversified crops, hence improving household food security, dietary status, and economic return. The much needed green revolution and adaptations to climate change in SSA should blend rainwater harvesting ideals with agronomic principles. More efforts are needed to improve the indigenous practices, and to disseminate best practices on a wider scale.
236 citations
Cites background from "A watershed approach to upgrade rai..."
...Recently, there have been research and development efforts by a number of regional or international organizations working in SSA (Humphreys and Bayot, 2009; Liniger et al., 2011; Rockstrom et al., 2004; Twomlow et al., 2008)....
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TL;DR: Wang et al. as mentioned in this paper quantified how food consumption patterns influence water requirements in China and proposed three scenarios to project future TWRF, representing low, medium, and high levels of modernization (S1, S2, and S3, respectively).
Abstract: It is widely recognized that food consumption patterns significantly impact water requirements. The aim of this paper is to quantify how food consumption patterns influence water requirements in China. The findings show that per capita water requirement for food (CWRF) has increased from 255 m3 cap-1y?1 in 1961 to 860 m3 cap-1 y?1 in 2003, largely due to an increase in the consumption of animal products in recent decades. Although steadily increasing, the CWRF of China is still much lower than that of many developed countries. The total water requirement for food (TWRF) has been determined as 1127 km3 y-1 in 2003. Three scenarios are proposed to project future TWRF, representing low, medium, and high levels of modernization (S1, S2, and S3, respectively). Analysis of these three scenarios indicates that TWRF will likely continue to increase in the next three decades. An additional amount of water ranging between 407 and 515 km3 y-1 will be required in 2030 compared to the TWRF in 2003. This will undoubtedly put high pressure on China's already scarce water resources. We conclude that the effect of the food consumption patterns on China's water resources is substantial both in the recent past and in the near future. China will need to strengthen "green water" management and to take advantage of "virtual water" import to meet the additional TWRF
231 citations
Cites background from "A watershed approach to upgrade rai..."
...Sci., 12, 887–898, 2008 basin context, and particularly the upscaling effect of rainwater harvesting measures, which is also the subject of study in other parts of the world and particularly Africa (e.g. Rockström et al., 2004; Ngigi et al., 2006; Makurira et al., 2007)....
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TL;DR: In situ rainwater harvesting (RWH) belongs to the promising practices to support sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa facing climate change impacts, but appropriate indicators for their long-term sustainability are missing as discussed by the authors.
194 citations
References
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TL;DR: Recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state, which suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.
Abstract: All ecosystems are exposed to gradual changes in climate, nutrient loading, habitat fragmentation or biotic exploitation. Nature is usually assumed to respond to gradual change in a smooth way. However, studies on lakes, coral reefs, oceans, forests and arid lands have shown that smooth change can be interrupted by sudden drastic switches to a contrasting state. Although diverse events can trigger such shifts, recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state. This suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.
6,213 citations
"A watershed approach to upgrade rai..." refers background in this paper
...Shifts to another stability domain may cause irreversible loss of essential ecological goods and services (Scheffer et al., 2001)....
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Book•
01 Aug 2002
TL;DR: The authors examines theories (models) of how systems (those of humans, nature, and combined humannatural systems) function, and attempts to understand those theories and how they can help researchers develop effective institutions and policies for environmental management.
Abstract: The book examines theories (models) of how systems (those of humans, nature, and combined humannatural systems) function, and attempts to understand those theories and how they can help researchers develop effective institutions and policies for environmental management. The fundamental question this book asks is whether or not it is possible to get beyond seeing environment as a sub-component of social systems, and society as a sub-component of ecological systems, that is, to understand human-environment interactions as their own unique system. After examining the similarities and differences among human and natural systems, as well as the means by which they can be accounted for in theories and models, the book examines five efforts to describe human-natural systems. The point of these efforts is to provide the means of learning about those systems so that they can be managed adaptively. The final section of the book uses case studies to examine the application of integrated theories/models to the real world.
3,864 citations
Book•
01 Sep 2005
TL;DR: In this article, various methods of environmental impact assessment as a guide to design of new environmental development and management projects are discussed. But the authors do not reject the concept of the environmental impact analysis but rather stress the need for fundamental understanding of the structure and dynamics of ecosystems.
Abstract: This book is on the various methods of environmental impact assessment as a guide to design of new environmental development and management projects. This approach surveys the features of the environment likely to be affected by the developments under consideration, analyses the information collected, tries to predict the impact of these developments and lays down guidelines or rules for their management.
This book is concerned with practical problems, e.g. development in Canada, the management of fisheries, pest control, etc. It is devoted to a general understanding of environmental systems through methods that have worked in the real world with its many uncertainties. It does not reject the concept of environmental impact analysis but rather stresses the need for fundamental understanding of the structure and dynamics of ecosystems.
3,437 citations
"A watershed approach to upgrade rai..." refers background in this paper
...‘‘Adaptive management’’ (Holling, 1978) has been widely advocated as a new management paradigm....
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Book•
01 Apr 2008
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of local ecological knowledge in ecosystem management is explored, and the strategy of the commons is used to build resilience in local management systems in a lagoon fishery.
Abstract: 1. Introduction Fikret Berkes, Johan Colding and Carl Folke Part I. Perspectives on Resilience: 2. Adaptive dancing Lance Gunderson 3. Nature and society through the lens of resilience Iain J. Davidson-Hunt and Fikret Berkes 4. Redundancy and diversity Bobbi Low, Elinor Ostrom, Carl Simon and James Wilson Part II. Building Resilience in Local Management Systems: 5. The strategy of the commons Lars Carlsson 6. Management practices for building adaptive capacity Maria Tengo and Monica Hammer 7. Living with disturbance Johan Colding, Per Olsson and Thomas Elmqvist Part III. Social-ecological Learning and Adaption: 8. Exploring the role of local ecological knowledge in ecosystem management Madhav Gadgil, Per Olsson, Fikret Berkes and Carl Folke 9. Facing the adaptive challenge Kristen Blann, Steve Light and Jo Ann Musumeci 10. Caribou co-management in northern Canada Anne Kendrick Part IV. Cross-scale Institutional Response to Change: 11. Dynamics of social-ecological changes in a lagoon fishery in southern Brazil Cristiana Seixas and Fikret Berkes 12. Keeping ecological resilience afloat in cross-scale turbulence Janis Alcorn, John Bamba, Stefanus Masiun, Ita Natalia and Antoinette Royo 13. Policy transformations in the US Forest Sector, 1970-2000 Ronald L. Trosper 14. Synthesis Carl Folke, Johan Colding and Fikret Berkes.
3,208 citations
TL;DR: The diversity of responses to environmental change among species contributing to the same ecosystem function, which is called response diversity, is critical to resilience and is particularly important for ecosystem renewal and reorganization following change.
Abstract: Biological diversity appears to enhance the resilience of desirable ecosystem states, which is required to secure the production of essential ecosystem services. The diversity of responses to environmental change among species contributing to the same ecosystem function, which we call response diversity, is critical to resilience. Response diversity is particularly important for ecosystem renewal and reorganization following change. Here we present examples of response diversity from both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and across temporal and spatial scales. Response diversity provides adaptive capacity in a world of complex systems, uncertainty, and human-dominated environments. We should pay special attention to response diversity when planning ecosystem management and restoration, since it may contribute considerably to the resilience of desired ecosystem states against disturbance, mismanagement, and degradation.
1,720 citations
"A watershed approach to upgrade rai..." refers background in this paper
...This is particularly important in determining how a system will perform in the face of disturbance and change (Elmqvist et al., 2003)....
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