Accessibility and transit-oriented development in European metropolitan areas
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship between transit-oriented development and rail-based accessibility in a metropolitan area, and found that the latter is higher in urban areas where inhabitants and jobs are more concentrated around the railway network.
Abstract: This study investigates how urban form is related to accessibility. In particular, it explores the relationship between Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) and rail-based accessibility in a metropolitan area. The following overarching questions are addressed: Does a TOD-informed urban spatial structure correlate with high rail based accessibility? Which features of TOD are correlated to rail-based accessibility? These questions are answered through a comparative analysis of six metropolitan areas in Europe. The “TOD degree”, operationalized as the extent to which urban development is concentrated along rail corridors and stations, is correlated with a cumulative opportunity measure of rail-based accessibility to jobs and inhabitants. The comparison demonstrates that rail-based accessibility is higher in urban areas where inhabitants and jobs are more concentrated around the railway network and in lesser measure in urban areas with higher values of network connectivity. No correlation is found between rail-based accessibility and average densities of inhabitants and jobs.
Summary (3 min read)
Jump to: [1. Introduction] – [2. Literature review: TOD degree of the urban structure, travel behaviour and accessibility] – [3. Research design] – [3.1. Case studies] – [3.2. Data sets, study areas and spatial units] – [3.3. Correlation variables] – [4. Outputs of study cases cross-sectional comparison] – [4.1. Outputs of cross-sectional analysis of TOD degree of the urban structure and accessibility in the study cases] – [4.2. Outputs of correlation analysis] and [5. Conclusions]
1. Introduction
- The urban and transport planning strategy of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has been generating considerable interest in academic and professional circles recently (Bertolini et al., 2012; Cervero, 2004; Curtis et al., 2009).
- By exploring these issues, the authors aim to provide empirical insights into the understudied relationship between TOD (a transport and urban development strategy embraced by increasing numbers of cities and regions across the world) and accessibility (a key policy aim and feature of the urban system).
- Accordingly, this paper innovatively contributes (1) a transparent link between the two and (2) a systematic way of assessing to what extent and because of which transport and land use features, the spatial distribution of jobs and population matches the rail network.
2. Literature review: TOD degree of the urban structure, travel behaviour and accessibility
- The interaction between the TOD degree of the urban structure, accessibility and travel behaviour has attracted considerable attention in the scientific literature worldwide.
- Within the TOD literature, an increasing number of studies focus specifically on how transit development impacts land use changes (Cervero and Landis, 1997; Ratner and Goetz, 2013).
- The answers to this broad issue remain thus ambivalent, and it is not yet clear whether land use strategies alone can have a significant effect on travel behaviour (Ewing and Cervero, 2010).
- Using different methods and measures of subjective or objective accessibility, many studies compare the accessibility by different modes, predominantly comparing public transport and car use (Benenson et al., 2011; Keller et al., 2011).
3. Research design
- The research methodology was set up to provide insights into the relationships between TOD degree of the urban structure and citywide accessibility.
- – Comparison between the various case studies and interpretation of the results: through geographical information systems (GIS), which provides spatial analysis and comparison as well as the visualisation of results.
3.1. Case studies
- The authors did not include TOD best practices in Europe (as exemplified by Copenhagen and Stockholm) as their aim was indeed not to identify best examples, or their defining characteristics, but rather urban form determinants of accessibility by rail.
- The authors selected case studies that showed sufficient variation on possible determinants, not that were potential best (or worst) practices.
- The decision was made to limit the number of case studies to six: more cities would have meant that fewer types of analyses could have been performed and triangulation between them and comparisons between different cities would have been more difficult and less transparent.
- Data availability was also a factor behind the choice.
3.2. Data sets, study areas and spatial units
- The GEOSTAT 1A project population grid (Statistical Office of the European Communities, 2012), which provides a homogeneous grid population dataset, was integrated with datasets from national census data and used for the land use analysis.
- The boundaries of the study areas were set as the circumference of 30 km radius, which approximately corresponds to the average commuting distance, centred in the main rail station, which the authors took as the node in the network with the highest connectivity value.
- Study areas in the different cases thus have similar total surface areas with only small differences because water and other non-urbanised natural areas are not computed in the boundaries of the study area, allowing a comparison between cases, as represented in Fig.
- The choice of this spatial unit has impact on the analysis results, according to the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) (Dark and Bram, 2007), with reference to the number of areal units used (scale effect) and depending on how smaller areal units are grouped at the local scale (zonation effect).
- Taking into account these two aspects, their choice was made according to three main criteria: (i) threshold of the total number of areal units for computational reasons, (ii) dimension of the spatial unit threshold based on walking accessibility to the station and (iii) comparable data availability for the six case studies.
3.3. Correlation variables
- The first variable is the TOD degree of the urban structure defined as the extent to which the job and inhabitant densities are developed along rail transit (tram, metro and regional rail) corridors.
- The authors measured this value with a method inspired by, but distinct from the node-place model (Bertolini, 1999): for each AZ they measured a ‘‘node index’’ and a ‘‘place index’’, and they analysed the bivariate scatterplot distribution in a xy graph of node and place index values for each AZ of the study area.
- Indeed average density is not measuring if and how densities are strategically distributed and articulated in a zone, and this constitutes a problem in analysing the degree of transit and land-use integration.
- The cumulative accessibility measure is calculated as the number of inhabitants and jobs reachable in 30 min travel time by rail (regional rail, metro and tram) and expressed as a percentage of the total number of inhabitants and jobs in the study area.
- Their aim is not to assess the impact of accessibility by rail on rail modal share, but to provide insights into the urban form determinants of rail accessibility.
4. Outputs of study cases cross-sectional comparison
- The cross-sectional analysis was completed in two steps.
- First, the two variables for the different case studies were calculated and analysed independently.
- The second step focused on the correlations between the two.
4.1. Outputs of cross-sectional analysis of TOD degree of the urban structure and accessibility in the study cases
- The measurement of the TOD degree of the urban structure yielded twelve maps (Figs. 2 and 3) and six scatterplots (Fig. 4).
- Diagrams in Fig. 4 allow a more systematic comparison of the different interrelations and scatter distributions of the place and node indices in the six study cases.
- The higher correlation values for Amsterdam and Munich mean that in these cities there is a higher match between the distribution of residential and employment densities and the connectivity offered by the railway network.
- The average values of accessibility in the six cases summarized in Table 4 show that Amsterdam is the city with the highest average accessibility (on average 32.48% of all jobs and inhabitants in the metropolitan area are accessible by 30 min rail travel) while Naples has the lowest (5.32%).
4.2. Outputs of correlation analysis
- First, cumulative railbased accessibility is strongly correlated to the TOD degree of an urban area.
- Indeed, cumulative rail-based accessibility almost increases in direct proportion, when urban development becomes Table 5 Correlation between TOD degree and cumulative rail-based accessibility (average citywide value).
- Third, accessibility values are not correlated with maximal or average density of the study area.
- In order to explore these relationships further, Table 6 shows the result from a multiple regression model.
5. Conclusions
- Transit-Oriented Development is one the most commonly used development strategies for metropolitan areas.
- It is important to stress that the proposed correlation analysis is exploratory and hypothesis-generating rather than explanatory or hypothesis-testing.
- It can show the relationships between whole-city accessibility, and the density or connectivity of a single urban area and vice versa.
- In terms of implications for urban and transportation planning, this study suggests that strengthening the relationship between the railway network and land uses is an effective measure for increasing cumulative rail-based accessibility; improving railway network connectivity is also important, but just increasing densities is not.
- Thus, it would be interesting to extend the methodology with more sophisticated accessibility measures, for instance acknowledging distance decay and competition effects, or focusing on specific segments of the population.
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Figures (10)
Table 6 Multiple regression analysis results. 
Fig. 2. Node and place indices (Amsterdam, Helsinki and Munich study areas). 
Fig. 5. The distribution of cumulative rail-based accessibility to inhabitants and jobs in the study areas. 
Table 4 Cumulative accessibility (average value at the citywide scale). 
Fig. 4. Scatterplots of node and place indices for each study case (place index on x axis and node index on y axis). 
Table 3 Comparison of TOD degree of the urban structure in the study cases, and other indices describing the scatterplots. 
Fig. 1. Grouping of studies on interrelations between TOD degree of the urban structure, accessibility and travel behaviour. 
Fig. 3. Node and place indices (Naples, Rome and Helsinki study areas). 
Table 1 Structural land use variables of the study cases. Source: Statistical Office of the European Communities (2011). 
Table 2 Structural transport system variables of the case studies. Source: Statistical Office of the E
Citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provide a comprehensive, systematic and up-to-date review of transit-oriented development (TOD) research achievements and challenges, and identify the main gaps and challenges that TOD research needs to address in the future.
Abstract: Among the attempts made worldwide to foster urban and transport sustainability, transit-oriented development (TOD) certainly is one of the most successful. Since the TOD concept appeared in the late 1980s, it has received increasing attention from researchers and practitioners as a way to merge together transport engineering and planning, land-use planning, and urban design for providing comprehensive solutions to contemporary urban problems. This attention has notably led to the publication of over 300 articles explicitly concerned with TOD in Web of Science journals, as well as to many implementations of the concept, some already completed and others underway (as, for example, the Grand Paris Project in France and Moscow Central Circle in Russia). Essentially, TOD can be described as land-use and transport planning that makes sustainable transport modes convenient and desirable, and that maximizes the efficiency of transport services by concentrating urban development around transit stations. However, as TOD projects started to be implemented worldwide, it became evident that their outcomes could be quite diverse, revealing that in practice the results of a project would depend on a wide variety of factors, trends and complex interrelations between them. In this article, we aim to provide a comprehensive, systematic and up-to-date review of TOD research achievements and challenges. We start by presenting the TOD concept, framing it in the theory of urban planning, and by describing the different typologies of TOD proposed in the literature. Then, we review the vast research dedicated to the study of TOD effects, distinguishing impacts on travel behavior, real-estate prices, residential location, urban form, and community life. The next subject we look at is TOD planning, focusing separately on policy issues and decision-support tools. In the final part of the article, based on the analysis of previous literature, we identify the main gaps and challenges that TOD research needs to address in the future.
129 citations
TL;DR: A methodology to quantitatively measure existing levels of TOD in terms of a TOD Index, within walkable distance of a transit node, by measuring various criteria that define TOD is proposed.
Abstract: Transit Oriented Development (TOD) can stimulate sustainable development by improving the interaction between transit and the surrounding development. Planning for TOD around existing transit nodes can only be effective if the assessment of the base situation is done properly. To do so, we propose a methodology to quantitatively measure existing levels of TOD in terms of a TOD Index, within walkable distance of a transit node, by measuring various criteria that define TOD. The value of a TOD index indicates the level to which TOD supporting characteristics are inplace around a transit node and what may be required to be improved so as to attain better transit orientation of thedevelopment. With these results in hand, TOD planning proposals can become more accurate by targeting investments on the most relevant or critical factors. The methodology was applied to the city region of Arnhem and Nijmegen, The Netherlands. A TOD index was calculated for areas around the 21 train stations in the region. The results help in drawing TOD policy for the region by identifying which station areas need more attention than others and at the same time, for each station, identifying specific TOD characteristic(s) that need improvement.
109 citations
TL;DR: Wang et al. as mentioned in this paper examined the effect of rail transit station-based TOD on daily station passenger volume and found that high employment densities should be especially encouraged as a key TOD feature; and interchange stations should be more strategically positioned in the planning for rail transit network.
Abstract: Transit oriented development (TOD) has been an important topic for urban transportation planning research and practice. This paper is aimed at empirically examining the effect of rail transit station-based TOD on daily station passenger volume. Using integrated circuit (IC) card data on metro passenger volumes and cellular signaling data on the spatial distribution of human activities in Shanghai, the research identifies variations in ridership among rail transit stations. Then, regression analysis is performed using passenger volume in each station as the dependent variable. Explanatory variables include station area employment and population, residents’ commuting distances, metro network accessibility, status as interchange station, and coupling with commercial activity centers. The main findings are: (1) Passenger volume is positively associated with employment density and residents’ commuting distance around station; (2) stations with earlier opening dates and serving as transfer nodes tend to have positive association with passenger volumes; (3) metro stations better integrated with nearby commercial development tend to have larger passenger volumes. Several implications are drawn for TOD planning: (1) TOD planning should be integrated with rail transit network planning; (2) location of metro stations should be coupled with commercial development; (3) high employment densities should be especially encouraged as a key TOD feature; and (4) interchange stations should be more strategically positioned in the planning for rail transit network.
73 citations
Abstract: This paper reviews transport's historical, contemporary and future role in shaping urban development since industrialisation. Previous definitions of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) starting in the late 20th century are challenged. Three distinct eras of TOD are identified: from the mid-19th century to early 20th century; Planned TOD in the mid-20th century; and TOD for urban regeneration and/or urban expansion since the late 20th century, now featuring rail and bus rapid transit, cycling and walking, shared use mobility, and automated transport. Future links with disruptive transport technologies are highlighted as themes that must be examined for assisting TOD's further development. The authors make the case, using empirical evidence from selected TOD applications from around the world, that high frequency transit service is essential for successful contemporary and future planned TODs. TOD is then redefined for the 21st century and best practice policy recommendations are made.
71 citations
TL;DR: The classic ‘node (transport) – place (land use)’ model is extended by incorporating the oriented characteristics that represent the morphological and functional ties between transport and land use to help implement TOD practice within land use planning in Shanghai, China.
Abstract: Transit Oriented Development (TOD), the integration of transport system with land use, has gained considerate priorities in planning strategies towards urban sustainability. To accrue a better overall leverage of the benefits arising from TOD practice, it is necessary to explore the variations and typology among TODs. This paper extends the classic ‘node (transport) – place (land use)’ model by incorporating the oriented characteristics that represent the morphological and functional ties between transport and land use. The model is applied to the case of Shanghai, China. Fuzzy AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) is used to construct the indicators system of each dimension (node, tie and place) in the model and typology among TODs is divided by SOM (self-organizing map). We find that the TOD index value declines from the urban center to the outskirts of the city obviously. Four typologies are identified among TODs, including the Integrated (all high node, tie and place index value), the Functionally place-developed (low node index value and high tie and place index value), the Morphologically node-developed (high node index value and low tie and place index value) and the Dispersed (all low node, tie and place index value). Based on the evaluation, we put forward an optimization plan for the areas with low TOD index values, which are consistent with the planned lines under construction. All the methods demonstrated in this study are easy to perform and can be widely applied to the assessment of TOD typologies worldwide. This study produces some generalized knowledge that are useful for implementing TOD practice within land use planning.
70 citations
References
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...…(in terms of correlation coefficient R and R2 linear) and rail-based accessibility, in line with the general expectations expressed in the literature (Ewing and Cervero, 2010); – a positive (albeit weaker) relationship also exists between the variables representing the mean and the maximal node…...
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...…in terms of travel distance, journey frequency, modal split, travel time and transport energy consumption (Boarnet, 2011; Cervero and Kockelman, 1997; Echenique et al., 2012; Ewing and Cervero, 2010; Naess, 2012; Schwanen et al., 2001; Shatu and Kamruzzaman, 2014; Stead and Marshall, 2001)....
[...]
...The answers to this broad issue remain thus ambivalent, and it is not yet clear whether land use strategies alone can have a significant effect on travel behaviour (Ewing and Cervero, 2010)....
[...]
...Also, observed trip length is generally shorter at locations that are more accessible (Ewing and Cervero, 2010)....
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Abstract: The built environment is thought to influence travel demand along three principal dimensions —density, diversity, and design. This paper tests this proposition by examining how the ‘3Ds’ affect trip rates and mode choice of residents in the San Francisco Bay Area. Using 1990 travel diary data and land-use records obtained from the U.S. census, regional inventories, and field surveys, models are estimated that relate features of the built environment to variations in vehicle miles traveled per household and mode choice, mainly for non-work trips. Factor analysis is used to linearly combine variables into the density and design dimensions of the built environment. The research finds that density, land-use diversity, and pedestrian-oriented designs generally reduce trip rates and encourage non-auto travel in statistically significant ways, though their influences appear to be fairly marginal. Elasticities between variables and factors that capture the 3Ds and various measures of travel demand are generally in the 0.06 to 0.18 range, expressed in absolute terms. Compact development was found to exert the strongest influence on personal business trips. Within-neighborhood retail shops, on the other hand, were most strongly associated with mode choice for work trips. And while a factor capturing ‘walking quality’ was only moderately related to mode choice for non-work trips, those living in neighborhoods with grid-iron street designs and restricted commercial parking were nonetheless found to average significantly less vehicle miles of travel and rely less on single-occupant vehicles for non-work trips. Overall, this research shows that the elasticities between each dimension of the built environment and travel demand are modest to moderate, though certainly not inconsequential. Thus it supports the contention of new urbanists and others that creating more compact, diverse, and pedestrian-orientated neighborhoods, in combination, can meaningfully influence how Americans travel.
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