An analytical energy model for metal foil deposition in ultrasonic consolidation
TL;DR: In this article, an analytical energy model aimed at investigating the effects of process parameters on bond formation in ultrasonic consolidation was presented, where two factors were defined, energy input to the workpiece within a single cycle of ultrasonic vibration (E0) and total energy input (Et), to evaluate to the magnitude of transmitted energy into the work piece during UC and it was found that linear weld density, E0 and Et are affected by process parameters in similar manners.
Abstract: Purpose – Recently, a number of research projects have been focused on an emerging additive manufacturing process, termed ultrasonic consolidation (UC). The purpose of this paper is to present an analytical energy model aimed at investigating the effects of process parameters on bond formation in UC.Design/methodology/approach – In the model, two factors are defined, energy input to the workpiece within a single cycle of ultrasonic vibration (E0) and total energy input to the workpiece (Et), to evaluate to the magnitude of transmitted energy into the workpiece during UC.Findings – It is found that linear weld density, E0 and Et are affected by process parameters in similar manners.Research limitations/implications – The current model is developed based on several simplifying assumptions, and energy dissipation and bond degradation during UC are not considered in the model.Originality/value – The current model gives a useful understanding of the effects of process parameter on the bond formation in UC from...
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TL;DR: In this article, an optimization of ultrasonic spot welding parameters for joining 3003 Aluminum alloy with 304 Stainless steel was performed at various clamping pressures and energy levels for investigating its effect on microstructure, mechanical properties and bond quality of the weld.
121 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify a number of critical weld attributes that determine the quality of welds by experimentally characterizing the weld formation over time, and a novel microstructural classification method for the weld region of an ultrasonic metal weld is introduced to complete the weld quality characterization.
Abstract: Manufacturing of lithium-ion battery packs for electric or hybrid electric vehicles requires a significant amount of joining such as welding to meet desired power and capacity needs. However, conventional fusion welding processes such as resistance spot welding and laser welding face difficulties in joining multiple sheets of highly conductive, dissimilar materials with large weld areas. Ultrasonic metal welding overcomes these difficulties by using its inherent advantages derived from its solid-state process characteristics. Although ultrasonic metal welding is well-qualified for battery manufacturing, there is a lack of scientific quality guidelines for implementing ultrasonic welding in volume production. In order to establish such quality guidelines, this paper first identifies a number of critical weld attributes that determine the quality of welds by experimentally characterizing the weld formation over time. Samples of different weld quality were cross-sectioned and characterized with optical microscopy, scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), and hardness measurements in order to identify the relationship between physical weld attributes and weld performance. A novel microstructural classification method for the weld region of an ultrasonic metal weld is introduced to complete the weld quality characterization. The methodology provided in this paper links process parameters to weld performance through physical weld attributes.Copyright © 2012 by ASME and General Motors
105 citations
01 Jan 2018
TL;DR: Suggestions are made as to which approach is more appropriate according to the key performance indicator desired to be modelled and a discussion is included as to the way that future modelling work can better contribute to improving today's AM process understanding.
Abstract: Additive manufacturing (AM) is a very promising technology; however, there are a number of open issues related to the different AM processes. The literature on modelling the existing AM processes is reviewed and classified. A categorization of the different AM processes in process groups, according to the process mechanism, has been conducted and the most important issues are stated. Suggestions are made as to which approach is more appropriate according to the key performance indicator desired to be modelled and a discussion is included as to the way that future modelling work can better contribute to improving today's AM process understanding.
89 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a surface flattening process was developed to eliminate the risk of short circuiting between the metal matrices and printed conductors, and simultaneously reduce the total thickness of the printed circuitry.
Abstract: This work proposes a new method for the fabrication of multifunctional Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) structures featuring embedded printed electrical materials through Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM). Printed electrical circuitries combining conductive and insulating materials were directly embedded within the interlaminar region of UAM aluminium matrices to realise previously unachievable multifunctional composites. A specific surface flattening process was developed to eliminate the risk of short circuiting between the metal matrices and printed conductors, and simultaneously reduce the total thickness of the printed circuitry. This acted to improve the integrity of the UAM MMC's and their resultant mechanical strength. The functionality of embedded printed circuitries was examined via four-point probe measurement. DualBeam Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling were used to investigate the microstructures of conductive materials to characterize the effect of UAM embedding energy whilst peel testing was used to quantify mechanical strength of MMC structures in combination with optical microscopy. Through this process, fully functioning MMC structures featuring embedded insulating and conductive materials were realised whilst still maintaining high peel resistances of ca. 70 N and linear weld densities of ca. 90%.
55 citations
Cites background or methods from "An analytical energy model for meta..."
...[37] Yang Y, Janaki Ram GD, Stucker BE....
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...According to Yang’s model [37], UAM processing energy is determined by the combinations of control parameters (normal force, sonotrode amplitude, and welding speed)....
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...[37], the energy density of high and low UAM energy combinations is 2 J/mm(2) and 1....
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TL;DR: A comprehensive review of the ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) process history, technology advancements, application areas, and research areas is presented in this article, where contributions and advancements are summarized by academic or research institution following this chronological format.
Abstract: This paper aims to comprehensively review ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) process history, technology advancements, application areas and research areas. UAM, a hybrid 3D metal printing technology, uses ultrasonic energy to produce metallurgical bonds between layers of metal foils near room temperature. No melting occurs in the process – it is a solid-state 3D metal printing technology.,The paper is formatted chronologically to help readers better distinguish advancements and changes in the UAM process through the years. Contributions and advancements are summarized by academic or research institution following this chronological format.,This paper summarizes key physics of the process, characterization methods, mechanical properties, past and active research areas, process limitations and application areas.,This paper reviews the UAM process for the first time.
53 citations
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441 citations
"An analytical energy model for meta..." refers background in this paper
...However, these properties, especially friction coefficient and modulus of elasticity, could be modified when the material is exposed to ultrasonic excitation ( Langenecker, 1966...
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TL;DR: In this paper, the ultrasonic consolidation (UC) process is presented for the direct fabrication of monolithic aluminium tooling and components, which involves the use of high frequency, low amplitude, mechanical vibrations to bond metal foils in a layer-by-layer method.
168 citations
20 Dec 2003-Materials Science and Engineering A-structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors considered control parameter optimisation and surface preparation issues for the production of aluminium alloy 6061 specimens, and showed that the dynamic interfacial stresses, generated under UC conditions, compacted the oxide layer to form brittle, ceramic bonds at the weld interface.
Abstract: Ultrasonic consolidation (UC) is a freeform fabrication technique developed for the layered fabrication of metal parts. The process uses a high intensity ultrasonic energy source to induce combined static and oscillating shear forces within layers of metal foil to produce solid-state bonds. This paper will consider control parameter optimisation and surface preparation issues, for the production of aluminium alloy 6061 specimens. It will assess weld quality through both mechanical testing and optical observation. Aluminium 6061 specimens were successfully welded by the UC machine using both unprepared and surface prepared foils. In the unprepared specimens, thick oxide films exist along the whole specimen length of the weld interface. Results showed that the dynamic interfacial stresses, generated under UC conditions, compact the oxide layer to form brittle, ceramic bonds at the weld interface. A simple cleaning procedure increased metallurgical bonds, within the weld interface, by up to 45%. A general process window was produced for 6061 alloy based on a combination of the peel test data and microstructural analysis.
163 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of process parameters on linear weld density (LWD) in AI alloy 3003 UC parts was investigated and a set of optimum parameters for AI 3003 part fabrication using UC was obtained, which may vary for different foil materials and sonotrode/foil fric-tional conditions.
151 citations
"An analytical energy model for meta..." refers background in this paper
...Experimental studies have revealed four major controllable process parameters affecting bond formation of metal foils, which are oscillation amplitude of the sonotrode, traveling speed of the sonotrode, normal force applied to the workpiece by the sonotrode, and temperature of the base plate ( Janaki Ram et al. , 2007a...
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TL;DR: In this paper, the interface microstructures of a variety of ultrasonically consolidated similar and dissimilar metal samples were investigated, and the mechanisms of foil bonding and fiber embedment in ultrasonic consolidation have been discussed.
128 citations
"An analytical energy model for meta..." refers background in this paper
...It was revealed that metallurgical bonding in UC is essentially solid state, which is created by atomic forces across nascent metal surface contact points ( Yang et al. , 2009...
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