Dissertation•
Application-specific protocol architectures for wireless networks
01 Jan 2000-
TL;DR: This dissertation supports the claim that application-specific protocol architectures achieve the energy and latency efficiency and error robustness needed for wireless networks by developing two systems.
Abstract: In recent years, advances in energy-efficient design and wireless technologies have enabled exciting new applications for wireless devices. These applications span a wide range, including real-time and streaming video and audio delivery, remote monitoring using networked microsensors, personal medical monitoring, and home networking of everyday appliances. While these applications require high performance from the network, they suffer from resource constraints that do not appear in more traditional wired computing environments. In particular, wireless spectrum is scarce, often limiting the bandwidth available to applications and making the channel error-prone, and the nodes are battery-operated, often limiting available energy.
My thesis is that this harsh environment with severe resource constraints requires an application-specific protocol architecture, rather than the traditional layered approach, to obtain the best possible performance. This dissertation supports this claim using detailed case studies on microsensor networks and wireless video delivery. The first study develops LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), an architecture for remote microsensor networks that combines the ideas of energy-efficient cluster-based routing and media access together with application-specific data aggregation to achieve good performance in terms of system lifetime, latency, and application-perceived quality. This approach improves system lifetime by an order of magnitude compared to general-purpose approaches when the node energy is limited. The second study develops an unequal error protection scheme for MPEG-4 compressed video delivery that adapts the level of protection applied to portions of a packet to the degree of importance of the corresponding bits. This approach obtains better application-perceived performance than current approaches for the same amount of transmission bandwidth. These two systems show that application-specific protocol architectures achieve the energy and latency efficiency and error robustness needed for wireless networks. (Copies available exclusively from MIT Libraries, Rm. 14-0551, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307. Ph. 617-253-5668; Fax 617-253-1690.)
Citations
More filters
TL;DR: This work develops and analyzes low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), a protocol architecture for microsensor networks that combines the ideas of energy-efficient cluster-based routing and media access together with application-specific data aggregation to achieve good performance in terms of system lifetime, latency, and application-perceived quality.
Abstract: Networking together hundreds or thousands of cheap microsensor nodes allows users to accurately monitor a remote environment by intelligently combining the data from the individual nodes. These networks require robust wireless communication protocols that are energy efficient and provide low latency. We develop and analyze low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), a protocol architecture for microsensor networks that combines the ideas of energy-efficient cluster-based routing and media access together with application-specific data aggregation to achieve good performance in terms of system lifetime, latency, and application-perceived quality. LEACH includes a new, distributed cluster formation technique that enables self-organization of large numbers of nodes, algorithms for adapting clusters and rotating cluster head positions to evenly distribute the energy load among all the nodes, and techniques to enable distributed signal processing to save communication resources. Our results show that LEACH can improve system lifetime by an order of magnitude compared with general-purpose multihop approaches.
10,296 citations
Cites background from "Application-specific protocol archi..."
...Data from sensor networks are typically time sensitive, so it is important to receive the data in a timely manner....
[...]
...In this case, nodes send their data to a centralcluster headthat forwards the data to get it closer to the desired recipient....
[...]
01 May 2005
TL;DR: The three main categories explored in this paper are data-centric, hierarchical and location-based; each routing protocol is described and discussed under the appropriate category.
Abstract: Recent advances in wireless sensor networks have led to many new protocols specifically designed for sensor networks where energy awareness is an essential consideration. Most of the attention, however, has been given to the routing protocols since they might differ depending on the application and network architecture. This paper surveys recent routing protocols for sensor networks and presents a classification for the various approaches pursued. The three main categories explored in this paper are data-centric, hierarchical and location-based. Each routing protocol is described and discussed under the appropriate category. Moreover, protocols using contemporary methodologies such as network flow and quality of service modeling are also discussed. The paper concludes with open research issues. � 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
3,573 citations
Cites background from "Application-specific protocol archi..."
...For instance, it has been concluded in [17] that for a habitat monitoring application where data is continuously transmitted to the sink, a hierarchical routing protocol is the most efficient alternative....
[...]
23 Apr 2001
TL;DR: This paper proposes a formal classification of sensor networks, based on their mode of functioning, as proactive and reactive networks, and introduces a new energy efficient protocol, TEEN (Threshold sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol) for reactive networks.
Abstract: Wireless sensor networks are expected to find wide applicability and increasing deployment in the near future. In this paper, we propose a formal classification of sensor networks, based on their mode of functioning, as proactive and reactive networks. Reactive networks, as opposed to passive data collecting proactive networks, respond immediately to changes in the relevant parameters of interest. We also introduce a new energy efficient protocol, TEEN (Threshold sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol) for reactive networks. We evaluate the performance of our protocol for a simple temperature sensing application. In terms of energy efficiency, our protocol has been observed to outperform existing conventional sensor network protocols.
2,423 citations
Cites background or result from "Application-specific protocol archi..."
...LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) is a family of protocols developed in [5]....
[...]
...Heinzelman et. al [5] introduce a hierarchical clustering algorithm for sensor networks, called LEACH....
[...]
...To evaluate the performance of our protocol, we have implemented it on the ns-2 simulator [10] with the LEACH extension [4]....
[...]
...LEACH is a good approximation of a proactive network protocol, with some minor differences....
[...]
...The report time discussed earlier is equivalent to the frame time in LEACH....
[...]
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors have developed abstractions to characterize the complex time varying nature of such sources with analytically tractable models and use them to address key design issues.
Abstract: Power management is an important concern in sensor networks, because a tethered energy infrastructure is usually not available and an obvious concern is to use the available battery energy efficiently. However, in some of the sensor networking applications, an additional facility is available to ameliorate the energy problem: harvesting energy from the environment. Certain considerations in using an energy harvesting source are fundamentally different from that in using a battery, because, rather than a limit on the maximum energy, it has a limit on the maximum rate at which the energy can be used. Further, the harvested energy availability typically varies with time in a nondeterministic manner. While a deterministic metric, such as residual battery, suffices to characterize the energy availability in the case of batteries, a more sophisticated characterization may be required for a harvesting source. Another issue that becomes important in networked systems with multiple harvesting nodes is that different nodes may have different harvesting opportunity. In a distributed application, the same end-user performance may be achieved using different workload allocations, and resultant energy consumptions at multiple nodes. In this case, it is important to align the workload allocation with the energy availability at the harvesting nodes. We consider the above issues in power management for energy-harvesting sensor networks. We develop abstractions to characterize the complex time varying nature of such sources with analytically tractable models and use them to address key design issues. We also develop distributed methods to efficiently use harvested energy and test these both in simulation and experimentally on an energy-harvesting sensor network, prototyped for this work.
1,535 citations
31 May 2004
TL;DR: This work proposes SEP, a heterogeneous-aware protocol to prolong the time interval before the death of the first node (the authors refer to as stability period), which is crucial for many applications where the feedback from the sensor network must be reliable.
Abstract: We study the impact of heterogeneity of nodes, in terms of their energy, in wireless sensor networks that are hierarchically clustered. In these networks some of the nodes become cluster heads, aggregate the data of their cluster members and transmit it to the sink. We assume that a percentage of the population of sensor nodes is equipped with additional energy resources—this is a source of heterogeneity which may result from the initial setting or as the operation of the network evolves. We also assume that the sensors are randomly (uniformly) distributed and are not mobile, the coordinates of the sink and the dimensions of the sensor field are known. We show that the behavior of such sensor networks becomes very unstable once the first node dies, especially in the presence of node heterogeneity. Classical clustering protocols assume that all the nodes are equipped with the same amount of energy and as a result, they can not take full advantage of the presence of node heterogeneity. We propose SEP, a heterogeneous-aware protocol to prolong the time interval before the death of the first node (we refer to as stability period), which is crucial for many applications where the feedback from the sensor network must be reliable. SEP is based on weighted election probabilities of each node to become cluster head according to the remaining energy in each node. We show by simulation that SEP always prolongs the stability period compared to (and that the average throughput is greater than) the one obtained using current clustering protocols. We conclude by studying the sensitivity of our SEP protocol to heterogeneity parameters capturing energy imbalance in the network. We found that SEP yields longer stability region for higher values of extra energy brought by more powerful nodes.
1,459 citations
Cites background from "Application-specific protocol archi..."
...This solution is more applicable compared to any solution which assumes that each node knows the total energy of the network in order to adapt its election probability to become a cluster head according to its remaining energy [5]....
[...]
...The first work that questioned the behavior of clustering protocols in the presence of heterogeneity in clustered wireless sensor networks was [5]....
[...]
References
More filters
TL;DR: This paper addresses digital communication in a Rayleigh fading environment when the channel characteristic is unknown at the transmitter but is known (tracked) at the receiver with the aim of leveraging the already highly developed 1-D codec technology.
Abstract: This paper addresses digital communication in a Rayleigh fading environment when the channel characteristic is unknown at the transmitter but is known (tracked) at the receiver. Inventing a codec architecture that can realize a significant portion of the great capacity promised by information theory is essential to a standout long-term position in highly competitive arenas like fixed and indoor wireless. Use (n T , n R ) to express the number of antenna elements at the transmitter and receiver. An (n, n) analysis shows that despite the n received waves interfering randomly, capacity grows linearly with n and is enormous. With n = 8 at 1% outage and 21-dB average SNR at each receiving element, 42 b/s/Hz is achieved. The capacity is more than 40 times that of a (1, 1) system at the same total radiated transmitter power and bandwidth. Moreover, in some applications, n could be much larger than 8. In striving for significant fractions of such huge capacities, the question arises: Can one construct an (n, n) system whose capacity scales linearly with n, using as building blocks n separately coded one-dimensional (1-D) subsystems of equal capacity? With the aim of leveraging the already highly developed 1-D codec technology, this paper reports just such an invention. In this new architecture, signals are layered in space and time as suggested by a tight capacity bound.
6,812 citations
"Application-specific protocol archi..." refers methods in this paper
...Another SDMA protocol, the Bell Labs Adaptive Space-Time (BLAST) protocol, uses antenna arrays at both the transmitter and the receiver to point not only the receiver but also the transmitter [29]....
[...]
01 Aug 2000
TL;DR: This paper explores and evaluates the use of directed diffusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network and its implications for sensing, communication and computation.
Abstract: Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena. In this paper, we explore the directed diffusion paradigm for such coordination. Directed diffusion is datacentric in that all communication is for named data. All nodes in a directed diffusion-based network are application-aware. This enables diffusion to achieve energy savings by selecting empirically good paths and by caching and processing data in-network. We explore and evaluate the use of directed diffusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network.
6,061 citations
"Application-specific protocol archi..." refers background or methods in this paper
..." SCADDS: Scalable Coordination Architectures for Deeply Distributed Systems (USC/ISI) [27, 48, 79]...
[...]
...The use of cross-layer design optimizations has been demonstrated in the context of wireless Internet delivery [8], application-controlled routing [3, 41, 48], wireless multimedia delivery [46, 49], and protocol frameworks for active wireless networks [53]....
[...]
...Recently, there has been a great deal of work on application-controlled routing [3, 41, 48]....
[...]
...[48] describes a completely different paradigm for microsensor communication: directed diffusion....
[...]
...Similarly, the SPIN [41] and directed diffusion [48] protocols use application-specific data naming and routing to achieve energy efficiency in a wireless microsensor network....
[...]
25 Oct 1998
TL;DR: The results of a derailed packet-levelsimulationcomparing fourmulti-hopwirelessad hoc networkroutingprotocols, which cover a range of designchoices: DSDV,TORA, DSR and AODV are presented.
Abstract: An ad hoc networkis a collwtion of wirelessmobilenodes dynamically forminga temporarynetworkwithouttheuseof anyexistingnetworkirrfrastructureor centralizedadministration.Dueto the limitedtransmissionrange of ~vlrelessnenvorkinterfaces,multiplenetwork“hops”maybe neededfor onenodeto exchangedata ivithanotheracrox thenetwork.Inrecentyears, a ttiery of nelvroutingprotocols~geted specificallyat this environment havebeen developed.but little pcrfomrartwinformationon mch protocol and no ralistic performancecomparisonbehvwrrthem ISavailable. ~Is paper presentsthe results of a derailedpacket-levelsimulationcomparing fourmulti-hopwirelessad hoc networkroutingprotocolsthatcovera range of designchoices: DSDV,TORA, DSR and AODV. \Vehave extended the /~r-2networksimulatorto accuratelymodelthe MACandphysical-layer behaviorof the IEEE 802.1I wirelessLANstandard,includinga realistic wtrelesstransmissionchannelmodel, and present the resultsof simulations of net(vorksof 50 mobilenodes.
5,147 citations
"Application-specific protocol archi..." refers background in this paper
...routing (DSR), solves this problem by only creating routes on an on-demand basis [14]....
[...]
...less local area networks (WLANs) and ad-hoc data networks [14, 32, 69]....
[...]
...by the channel propagation model in ns [14, 75]....
[...]
TL;DR: The WINS network represents a new monitoring and control capability for applications in such industries as transportation, manufacturing, health care, environmental oversight, and safety and security, and opportunities depend on development of a scalable, low-cost, sensor-network architecture.
Abstract: W ireless integrated network sensors (WINS) provide distributed network and Internet access to sensors, controls, and processors deeply embedded in equipment, facilities, and the environment. The WINS network represents a new monitoring and control capability for applications in such industries as transportation, manufacturing, health care, environmental oversight, and safety and security. WINS combine microsensor technology and low-power signal processing, computation, and low-cost wireless networking in a compact system. Recent advances in integrated circuit technology have enabled construction of far more capable yet inexpensive sensors, radios, and processors, allowing mass production of sophisticated systems linking the physical world to digital data networks [2–5]. Scales range from local to global for applications in medicine, security, factory automation, environmental monitoring, and condition-based maintenance. Compact geometry and low cost allow WINS to be embedded and distributed at a fraction of the cost of conventional wireline sensor and actuator systems. WINS opportunities depend on development of a scalable, low-cost, sensor-network architecture. Such applications require delivery of sensor information to the user at a low bit rate through low-power transceivers. Continuous sensor signal processing enables the constant monitoring of events in an environment in which short message packets would suffice. Future applications of distributed embedded processors and sensors will require vast numbers of devices. Conventional methods of sensor networking represent an impractical demand on cable installation and network bandwidth. Processing at the source would drastically reduce the financial, computational, and management burden on communication system
3,415 citations
"Application-specific protocol archi..." refers background in this paper
...These projects include: AWAIRS: Adaptive Wireless Arrays for Interactive Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and TargetAcquisition in Small Unit Operations (UCLA/Rockwell Science Center) [6, 22] WINS: Wireless Integrated Network Sensors (UCLA/Rockwell Science Center) [74, 97] Smart Dust: Autonomous Sensing and Communication in a Cubic Millimeter (U.C. Berke-ley) [51, 87] SCADDS: Scalable Coordination Architectures for Deeply Distributed Systems(USC/ISI) [27, 48, 79] -AMPS: Micro-Adaptive Multi-domain Power-aware Sensors (MIT) [40, 42, 65]In addition, there are numerous projects to develop \ubiquitous computing" architectures....
[...]
...architecture for the sensor nodes themselves [17, 25, 74]....
[...]
...WINS: Wireless Integrated Network Sensors (UCLA/Rockwell Science Center) [74, 97]...
[...]
01 Aug 1999
TL;DR: This paper believes that localized algorithms (in which simple local node behavior achieves a desired global objective) may be necessary for sensor network coordination.
Abstract: Networked sensors-those that coordinate amongst themselves to achieve a larger sensing task-will revolutionize information gathering and processing both in urban environments and in inhospitable terrain. The sheer numbers of these sensors and the expected dynamics in these environments present unique challenges in the design of unattended autonomous sensor networks. These challenges lead us to hypothesize that sensor network coordination applications may need to be structured differently from traditional network applications. In particular, we believe that localized algorithms (in which simple local node behavior achieves a desired global objective) may be necessary for sensor network coordination. In this paper, we describe localized algorithms, and then discuss directed diffusion, a simple communication model for describing localized algorithms.
3,044 citations
"Application-specific protocol archi..." refers background in this paper
...SCADDS: Scalable Coordination Architectures for Deeply Distributed Systems (USC/ISI) [27, 48, 79]...
[...]
...uses and challenges facing sensor networks [5, 27, 73], but also have been developing preliminary ideas as to how these networks should function [19, 22, 40, 48] as well as the appropriate low-energy...
[...]