Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319

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Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales

Journal Article•DOI•

Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales

Charles S. Carver¹, Teri L. White²•Institutions (2)

University of Miami¹, University of California, Los Angeles²

01 Aug 1994-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 67, Iss: 2, pp 319-333

TL;DR: In this paper, self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and behavioral activation system (BAS) sensitivities were created, and a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created.

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Abstract: J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.

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Journal Article•DOI•

A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation

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Andrew J. Elliot¹, Marcy A. Church•Institutions (1)

University of Rochester¹

01 Jan 1997-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

TL;DR: In this paper, a hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom and the results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in achievement motivation and high competence expectancies; performance-avoidance goals, in fear of failure and low competence expectation; and performance-approach goals were in ach.

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Abstract: A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom. Mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals were assessed and their antecedents and consequences examined. Results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in achievement motivation and high competence expectancies; performance-avoidance goals, in fear of failure and low competence expectancies; and performance-approach goals, in ach.ievement motivation, fear of failure, and high competence expectancies. Mastery goals facilitated intrinsic motivation, performance-approach goals enhanced graded performance, and performanceavoidance goals proved inimical to both intrinsic motivation and graded performance. The proposed model represents an integration of classic and contemporary approaches to the study of achievement motivation. Achievement motivation is a ubiquitous feature of daily life. In the classroom, at the workplace, and on the ballfield individuals strive to be competent in their effortful activities. In the past decade, many theorists have utilized a social-cognitive, achievement goal approach in accounting for individuals' competence-relevant strivings. "Achievement goal" is commonly defined as the purpose of task engagement (Maehr, 1989), and the specific type of goal adopted is posited to create a framework for how individuals interpret, experience, and act in their achievement pursuits (Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1989). Achievement goal theorists commonly identify two distinct orientations toward competence: a performance goal focused on the demonstration of competence relevant to others, and a mastery goal focused on the development of competence and task mastery (Ames & Archer, 1987; for similar conceptualizations with different nomenclature see Dweck, 1986; NichoUs, 1984). The adoption of a performance goal is hypothesized to produce susceptibility to a "helpless" pattern of responses in achievement settings (e.g., a preference for easy or difficult tasks, withdrawal of effort in the face of failure, and decreased task enjoyment), whereas the adoption of a mastery goal is presumed to lead to a "mastery" motivational pattern (e.g., a preference for moderately challenging tasks, persistence in the face of failure, and enhanced task enjoyment; Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1989). Most achievement goal theorists conceptualize both perfor

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3,412 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures ☆

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Lewis R. Goldberg¹, John A. Johnson², Herbert W. Eber, Robert Hogan, Michael C. Ashton³, C. Robert Cloninger⁴, Harrison G. Gough⁵ - Show less +3 more•Institutions (5)

Oregon Research Institute¹, Pennsylvania State University², Brock University³, Washington University in St. Louis⁴, University of California, Berkeley⁵

01 Feb 2006-Journal of Research in Personality

TL;DR: The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) as mentioned in this paper has been used as a prototype for public-domain personality measures, focusing on the International personality item pool, which has been widely used for personality measurement.

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2,822 citations

Cites background or methods from "Behavioral inhibition, behavioral a..."

...Other multiple-construct measures with IPIP proxies include the lexical Big-Five factor structure (Goldberg, 1992), the lexical Alternative 7 (Saucier, 1997), the 45 facets in the Abridged Big Five-dimensional Circumplex model (AB5C: Hofstee, de Raad, & Goldberg 1992), components of Emotional Intelligence (Barchard, 2001), and the BIS/BAS Inhibition/Activation System (Carver & White, 1994)....
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...Alternative 7 (Saucier, 1997), the 45 facets in the Abridged Big Five-dimensional Circumplex model (AB5C: Hofstee, de Raad, & Goldberg, 1992), components of Emotional Intelligence (Barchard, 2001), and the BIS/BAS Inhibition/Activation System ( Carver & White, 1994 )....
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...…(Goldberg, 1992), the lexical Alternative 7 (Saucier, 1997), the 45 facets in the Abridged Big Five-dimensional Circumplex model (AB5C: Hofstee, de Raad, & Goldberg 1992), components of Emotional Intelligence (Barchard, 2001), and the BIS/BAS Inhibition/Activation System (Carver & White, 1994)....
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Power, approach, and inhibition. Власть, напористость и подавленность

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Dacher Keltner, Deborah H. Gruenfeld

01 Jan 2000

TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose a method to use the information of the user's interaction with the system to improve the performance of the system. But they do not consider the impact of the interaction on the overall system.

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Abstract: Статья посвящена вопросам влияния власти на поведение человека. Авторы рассматривают данные различных источников, в которых увеличение власти связывается с напористостью, а ее уменьшение - с подавленностью. Конкретно, власть ассоциируется с: а) позитивным аффектом; б) вниманием к вознаграждению и к свойствам других, удовлетворяющим личные цели; в) автоматической переработкой информации и резкими суждениями; г) расторможенным социальным поведением. Уменьшение власти, напротив, ассоциируется с: а) негативным аффектом; б) вниманием к угрозам и наказаниям, к интересам других и к тем характеристикам я, которые отвечают целям других; в) контролируемой переработкой информации и совещательным типом рассуждений; г) подавленным социальным поведением. Обсуждаются также последствия этих паттернов поведения, связанных с властью, и потенциальные модераторы.

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2,293 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Power, approach, and inhibition.

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Dacher Keltner, Deborah H. Gruenfeld¹, Cameron Anderson•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Apr 2003-Psychological Review

TL;DR: Predictors from recent theorizing about approach and inhibition are derived and the potential moderators and consequences of these power-related behavioral patterns are discussed.

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Abstract: This article examines how power influences behavior. Elevated power is associated with increased rewards and freedom and thereby activates approach-related tendencies. Reduced power is associated with increased threat, punishment, and social constraint and thereby activates inhibition-related tendencies. The authors derive predictions from recent theorizing about approach and inhibition and review relevant evidence. Specifically, power is associated with (a) positive affect, (b) attention to rewards, (c) automatic information processing, and (d) disinhibited behavior. In contrast, reduced power is associated with (a) negative affect; (b) attention to threat, punishment, others’ interests, and those features of the self that are relevant to others’ goals; (c) controlled information processing; and (d) inhibited social behavior. The potential moderators and consequences of these power-related behavioral patterns are discussed.

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2,210 citations

Cites background from "Behavioral inhibition, behavioral a..."

...Elevated power, we propose, involves reward-rich environments and freedom and, as a consequence, triggers approach-related positive affect, attention to rewards, automatic cognition, and disinhibited behavior....
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...Researchers have largely focused on individual differences in approach and inhibition (e.g., Carver & White, 1994; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Elliot & Sheldon, 1998)....
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...…organization of the autonomic nervous system (Fowles, 1980), the biological underpinnings of personality traits and emotional disorders (e.g., Carver et al., 2000; Carver & White, 1994; DePue, 1995; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991), and the structure of emotion (Davidson, 1992; Sutton & Davidson, 1997)....
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...…the Experience and Expression of Negative Affect Self-reports of negative moods correlate with self-report measures of behavioral inhibition (Carver & White, 1994; see also Higgins et al., 1997, for relevant evidence relating prevention focus to negative affect) and central nervous system…...
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...Consistent with this view, markers of the approach system, including left frontal activity and dopamine, correlate with increased positive affect (Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999; Carver & White, 1994; Davidson, 1992; DePue, 1995; Sutton & Davidson, 1997)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

The two general activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolutionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence

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David Watson¹, David Wiese, Jatin G. Vaidya, Auke Tellegen•Institutions (1)

University of Iowa¹

01 May 1999-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined two dimensions imbedded in this structure, which they label Negative Activation (NA) and Positive Activation(PA), respectively, and argued that PA and NA represent the subjective components of broader biobehavioral systems.

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Abstract: D. Watson and A. Tellegen (1985) proposed a consensual structure of affect based on J. A. Russell's (1980) circumplex. The authors' review of the literature indicates that this 2-factor model captures robust structural properties of self-rated mood. Nevertheless, the evidence also indicates that the circumplex does not fit the data closely and needs to be refined. Most notably, the model's dimensions are not entirely independent; moreover, with the exception of Pleasantness-Unpleasantness, they are not completely bipolar. More generally, the data suggest a model that falls somewhere between classic simple structure and a true circumplex. The authors then examine two of the dimensions imbedded in this structure, which they label Negative Activation (NA) and Positive Activation (PA). The authors argue that PA and NA represent the subjective components of broader biobehavioral systems of approach and withdrawal, respectively. The authors conclude by demonstrating how this framework helps to clarify various affect-related phenomena, including circadian rhythms, sleep, and the mood disorders.

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1,902 citations

Cites background or methods from "Behavioral inhibition, behavioral a..."

...This markedly different distribution reflects the fact that the BFS primarily is concerned with approach and appetitive behaviors rather than potential threats, crises, and emergencies. As Clark and Watson (1988) put it, "PA ebbs and flows with the daily tide of events, whereas NA crashes upon us in times of trouble only to disappear just as quickly when the storm is over" (p....
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...AND TELLEGEN withdrawal behaviors (Carver & White, 1994; Depue & Collins, in press; Depue, Luciana, Arbisi, Collins, & Leon, 1994; Kring & Bachorowski, in press; Tomarken & Keener, 1998)....
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...Conversely, they posited that resting levels of right frontal activation reflect individual differences in the withdrawal-oriented BIS and the subjective experience of NA. Summarizing across these findings, Tomarken and Keener (1998) concluded that "these lateralized systems not only influence approach and withdrawal motivation but also the positive and negative emotions that are often linked to approach and withdrawal" (p....
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...Ms = 486 (Sample 1), 317 (Sample 2), and 421 (Sample 3). Samples 1 and 3 are based on momentary mood ratings; Sample 2 is based on general mood ratings. Samples 1 and 2 test Watson and Tellegen's (1985) model; Sample 3 tests Russell's (1980) model....
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...In contrast, variations in self-rated PA reflect the operation of the BFS (e.g.. Depue et al., 1987, 1994; Tellegen, 1985; Tomarken & Keener, 1998). The BFS is an appetitive system of behavioral approach rather than avoidance or inhibition: It directs organisms toward situations and experiences that potentially may yield pleasure and reward. Fowles (1987) described it as "a reward-seeking or approach system that responds to positive incentives by activating behavior" (p....
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References

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Journal Article•DOI•

Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.

[...]

David Watson¹, Lee Anna Clark, Auke Tellegen•Institutions (1)

Southern Methodist University¹

30 May 1988-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

TL;DR: Two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) are developed and are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period.

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Abstract: In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.

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34,482 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.

[...]

Michael F. Scheier¹, Charles S. Carver•Institutions (1)

Carnegie Mellon University¹

01 Jan 1985-Health Psychology

TL;DR: A scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies, was used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates and predicted that subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms.

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Abstract: This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.

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6,104 citations

"Behavioral inhibition, behavioral a..." refers background in this paper

...Some subjects also completed Scheier and Carver's (1985) Life Ori-...
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Journal Article•DOI•

Précis of The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-Hippocampal System..

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Jeffrey A. Gray

01 Sep 1982-Behavioral and Brain Sciences

TL;DR: It is proposed that these drugs reduce anxiety by impairing the functioning of a widespread neural system including the septo-hippocampal system (SHS), the Papez circuit, the prefrontal cortex, and ascending monoaminergic and cholinergic pathways which innervate these forebrain structures.

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Abstract: A model of the neuropsychology of anxiety is proposed. The model is based in the first instance upon an analysis of the behavioural effects of the antianxiety drugs (benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol) in animals. From such psychopharmacologi-cal experiments the concept of a “behavioural inhibition system” (BIS) has been developed. This system responds to novel stimuli or to those associated with punishment or nonreward by inhibiting ongoing behaviour and increasing arousal and attention to the environment. It is activity in the BIS that constitutes anxiety and that is reduced by antianxiety drugs. The effects of the antianxiety drugs in the brain also suggest hypotheses concerning the neural substrate of anxiety. Although the benzodiazepines and barbiturates facilitate the effects of γ-aminobutyrate, this is insufficient to explain their highly specific behavioural effects. Because of similarities between the behavioural effects of certain lesions and those of the antianxiety drugs, it is proposed that these drugs reduce anxiety by impairing the functioning of a widespread neural system including the septo-hippocampal system (SHS), the Papez circuit, the prefrontal cortex, and ascending monoaminergic and cholinergic pathways which innervate these forebrain structures. Analysis of the functions of this system (based on anatomical, physiological, and behavioural data) suggests that it acts as a comparator: it compares predicted to actual sensory events and activates the outputs of the BIS when there is a mismatch or when the predicted event is aversive. Suggestions are made as to the functions of particular pathways within this overall brain system. The resulting theory is applied to the symptoms and treatment of anxiety in man, its relations to depression, and the personality of individuals who are susceptible to anxiety or depression.

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4,725 citations

"Behavioral inhibition, behavioral a..." refers background in this paper

...Gray has argued that this physiological mechanism controls the experience of anxiety in response to anxiety-relevant cues (Gray, 1972, 1977, 1978, 1982, 1987b, 1990)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Tests for comparing elements of a correlation matrix.

[...]

James H. Steiger¹•Institutions (1)

University of British Columbia¹

01 Mar 1980-Psychological Bulletin

TL;DR: This article reviewed the literature on such tests, pointed out some statistics that should be avoided, and presented a variety of techniques that can be used safely with medium to large samples, and several illustrative numerical examples are provided.

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Abstract: In a variety of situations in psychological research, it is desirable to be able to make statistical comparisons between correlation coefficients measured on the same individuals. For example, an experimenter may wish to assess whether two predictors correlate equally with a criterion variable. In another situation, the experimenter may wish to test the hypothesis that an entire matrix of correlations has remained stable over time. The present article reviews the literature on such tests, points out some statistics that should be avoided, and presents a variety of techniques that can be used safely with medium to large samples. Several illustrative numerical examples are provided.

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4,245 citations