Biomimetics: lessons from nature--an overview.

doi:10.1098/RSTA.2009.0011

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Biomimetics: lessons from nature--an overview.

Journal Article•DOI•

Biomimetics: lessons from nature--an overview.

Bharat Bhushan¹•Institutions (1)

Ohio State University¹

28 Apr 2009-Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A (The Royal Society)-Vol. 367, Iss: 1893, pp 1445-1486

TL;DR: This paper provides a broad overview of the various objects and processes of interest found in nature and applications under development or available in the marketplace.

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Abstract: Nature has developed materials, objects and processes that function from the macroscale to the nanoscale. These have gone through evolution over 3.8Gyr. The emerging field of biomimetics allows one...

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Journal Article•DOI•

Natural and biomimetic artificial surfaces for superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, low adhesion, and drag reduction

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Bharat Bhushan¹, Yong Chae Jung¹•Institutions (1)

Ohio State University¹

01 Jan 2011-Progress in Materials Science

TL;DR: In this paper, the theoretical mechanisms of the wetting of rough surfaces are presented followed by the characterization of natural leaf surfaces and a comprehensive review is presented on artificial super-hydrophobic surfaces fabricated using various fabrication techniques and the influence of micro-, nano-and hierarchical structures on superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, low adhesion, and drag reduction.

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1,610 citations

Cites background from "Biomimetics: lessons from nature--a..."

...Duck feathers and butterfly wings also provide superhydrophobicity [22]....
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...Some leaves of water-repellent plants, such as Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus), are known to be superhydrophobic and self-cleaning due to hierarchical roughness (microbumps superimposed with a nanostructure) and the presence of a hydrophobic wax coating [143,10,196,47,25,22,116,118]....
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...1 shows a montage of some examples from nature [22]....
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...The understanding of the functions provided by objects and processes found in nature can guide us to imitate and produce nanomaterials, nanodevices, and processes [22]....
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...The word biomimetics first appeared in Webster’s dictionary in 1974 and is defined as ‘the study of the formation, structure or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones’ [22]....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Microwave chemistry for inorganic nanomaterials synthesis

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Idalia Bilecka¹, Markus Niederberger¹•Institutions (1)

ETH Zurich¹

04 Aug 2010-Nanoscale

TL;DR: This article is not meant to give an exhaustive overview of all nanomaterials synthesized by the microwave technique, but to discuss the new opportunities that arise as a result of the unique features of microwave chemistry.

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Abstract: This Feature Article gives an overview of microwave-assisted liquid phase routes to inorganic nanomaterials. Whereas microwave chemistry is a well-established technique in organic synthesis, its use in inorganic nanomaterials' synthesis is still at the beginning and far away from having reached its full potential. However, the rapidly growing number of publications in this field suggests that microwave chemistry will play an outstanding role in the broad field of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. This article is not meant to give an exhaustive overview of all nanomaterials synthesized by the microwave technique, but to discuss the new opportunities that arise as a result of the unique features of microwave chemistry. Principles, advantages and limitations of microwave chemistry are introduced, its application in the synthesis of different classes of functional nanomaterials is discussed, and finally expected benefits for nanomaterials' synthesis are elaborated.

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961 citations

The dry-style antifogging properties of mosquito compound eyes and artificial analogues prepared by soft lithography: a superhydrophobic state with high adhesive force

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Xuefeng Gao, Xin Yan, Xi Yao, Liang Xu, Kai Zhang, Junhu Zhang, Bai Yang, Lei Jiang - Show less +4 more

01 Jan 2007

Abstract: Fogging occurs when moisture condensation takes the form of accumulated droplets with diameters larger than 190 nm or half of the shortest wavelength (380 nm) of visible light. This problem may be effectively addressed by changing the affinity of a material’s surface for water, which can be accomplished via two approaches: i) the superhydrophilic approach, with a water contact angle (CA) less than 5°, and ii) the superhydrophobic approach, with a water CA greater than 150°, and extremely low CA hysteresis. To date, all techniques reported belong to the former category, as they are intended for applications in optical transparent coatings. A well-known example is the use of photocatalytic TiO2 nanoparticle coatings that become superhydrophilic under UV irradiation. Very recently, a capillary effect was skillfully adopted to achieve superhydrophilic properties by constructing 3D nanoporous structures from layer-by-layer assembled nanoparticles. The key to these two “wet”-style antifogging strategies is for micrometer-sized fog drops to rapidly spread into a uniform thin film, which can prevent light scattering and reflection from nucleated droplets. Optical transparency is not an intrinsic property of antifogging coatings even though recently developed antifogging coatings are almost transparent, and the transparency could be achieved by further tuning the nanoparticle size and film thickness. To our knowledge, the antifogging coatings may also be applied to many fields that do not require optical transparency, including, for example, paints for inhibiting swelling and peeling issues and metal surfaces for preventing corrosion. These types of issues, which are caused by adsorption of moisture, are hard to solve by the superhydrophilic approach because of its inherently “wet” nature. Thus, a “dry”-style antifogging strategy, which consists of a novel superhydrophobic technique that can prevent moisture or microscale fog drops from nucleating on a surface, is desired. Recent bionic researches have revealed that the self-cleaning ability of lotus leaves and the striking ability of a water-strider’s legs to walk on water can be attributed to the ideal superhydrophobicity of their surfaces, induced by special microand nanostructures. To date, the biomimetic fabrication of superhydrophobic microand/or nanostructures has attracted considerable interest, and these types of materials can be used for such applications as self-cleaning coatings and stain-resistant textiles. Although a superhydrophobic technique inspired by lotus leaves is expected to be able to solve such fogging problems because the water droplets can not remain on the surface, there are no reports of such antifogging coatings. Very recently, researchers from General Motors have reported that the surfaces of lotus leaves become wet with moisture because the size of the fog drops are at the microscale—so small that they can be easily trapped in the interspaces among micropapillae. Thus, lotuslike surface microstructures are unsuitable for superhydrophobic antifogging coatings, and a new inspiration from nature is desired for solving this problem. In this communication, we report a novel, biological, superhydrophobic antifogging strategy. It was found that the compound eyes of the mosquito C. pipiens possess ideal superhydrophobic properties that provide an effective protective mechanism for maintaining clear vision in a humid habitat. Our research indicates that this unique property is attributed to the smart design of elaborate microand nanostructures: hexagonally non-close-packed (ncp) nipples at the nanoscale prevent microscale fog drops from condensing on the ommatidia surface, and hexagonally close-packed (hcp) ommatidia at the microscale could efficiently prevent fog drops from being trapped in the voids between the ommatidia. We also fabricated artificial compound eyes by using soft lithography and investigated the effects of microand nanostructures on the surface hydrophobicity. These findings could be used to develop novel superhydrophobic antifogging coatings in the near future. It is known that mosquitoes possess excellent vision, which they exploit to locate various resources such as mates, hosts, and resting sites in a watery and dim habitat. To better understand such remarkable abilities, we first investigated the interaction between moisture and the eye surface. An ultrasonic humidifier was used to regulate the relative humidity of the atmosphere and mimic a mist composed of numerous tiny water droplets with diameters less than 10 lm. As the fog was C O M M U N IC A IO N

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756 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Bioinspired self-cleaning surfaces with superhydrophobicity, superoleophobicity, and superhydrophilicity

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Shunsuke Nishimoto¹, Shunsuke Nishimoto², Bharat Bhushan¹•Institutions (2)

Ohio State University¹, Okayama University²

21 Jan 2013-RSC Advances

TL;DR: In this paper, an overview of self-cleaning surfaces inspired by nine biological objects is provided: lotus leaves, rice leaves, cicada wings, butterfly wings, snail shell, fish scale, shark skin, pitcher plant, and photosynthesis.

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Abstract: Self-cleaning methods currently employed are based on understanding of the functions, structures, and principles of various objects found in living nature. Three types of surfaces, including superhydrophobic, superoleophobic, and superhydrophilic, offer solutions to keep a surface clean. In this review article, an overview of self-cleaning surfaces inspired by nine biological objects is provided: lotus leaves, rice leaves, cicada wings, butterfly wings, snail shell, fish scale, shark skin, pitcher plant, and photosynthesis. These surfaces exhibit special properties such as low adhesion, low drag, anisotropic wetting, anti-reflection, directional adhesion, anti-fouling, photocatalysis, self-sterilizing, and anti-fogging. We discuss the differences between the superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic surfaces and perspectives for self-cleaning surfaces in the future.

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672 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Bio-inspired design of multiscale structures for function integration

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Kesong Liu¹, Lei Jiang², Lei Jiang¹•Institutions (2)

Beihang University¹, Chinese Academy of Sciences²

01 Apr 2011-Nano Today

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on recent research progress in some typical biological materials (such as lotus leaves, rice leaves, butterfly wings, water strider legs, insect compound eyes, fish scales, red rose petals, brittlestars, spider silks, nacre, glass sponges, gecko feet, mussels, and others) and the corresponding bio-inspired multiscale materials possessing function integration.

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651 citations

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References

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Journal Article•DOI•

Purity of the sacred lotus, or escape from contamination in biological surfaces

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Wilhelm Barthlott¹, Christoph Neinhuis¹•Institutions (1)

University of Bonn¹

30 Apr 1997-Planta

TL;DR: It is shown here for the first time that the interdependence between surface roughness, reduced particle adhesion and water repellency is the keystone in the self-cleaning mechanism of many biological surfaces.

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Abstract: The microrelief of plant surfaces, mainly caused by epicuticular wax crystalloids, serves different purposes and often causes effective water repellency. Furthermore, the adhesion of contaminating particles is reduced. Based on experimental data carried out on microscopically smooth (Fagus sylvatica L., Gnetum gnemon L., Heliconia densiflora Verlot, Magnolia grandiflora L.) and rough water-repellent plants (Brassica oleracea L., Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott., Mutisia decurrens Cav., Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.), it is shown here for the first time that the interdependence between surface roughness, reduced particle adhesion and water repellency is the keystone in the self-cleaning mechanism of many biological surfaces. The plants were artificially contaminated with various particles and subsequently subjected to artificial rinsing by sprinkler or fog generator. In the case of water-repellent leaves, the particles were removed completely by water droplets that rolled off the surfaces independent of their chemical nature or size. The leaves of N. nucifera afford an impressive demonstration of this effect, which is, therefore, called the “Lotus-Effect” and which may be of great biological and technological importance.

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5,822 citations

"Biomimetics: lessons from nature--a..." refers background in this paper

...It has been reported that all superhydrophobic and self-cleaning leaves consist of an intrinsic hierarchical structure (Barthlott & Neinhuis 1997; Neinhuis & Barthlott 1997; Koch et al. 2008, 2009, in press a)....
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...A (2009) A model surface for superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning is provided by the leaves of the lotus plant (N. nucifera; figure 6a; Barthlott & Neinhuis 1997; Neinhuis & Barthlott 1997; Wagner et al. 2003; Bhushan & Jung 2006; Koch et al. 2008, 2009, in press a)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Cutaneous wound healing.

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Adam J. Singer¹, Richard A.F. Clark•Institutions (1)

Stony Brook University¹

02 Sep 1999-The New England Journal of Medicine

TL;DR: The primary goals of the treatment of wounds are rapid wound closure and a functional and aesthetically satisfactory scar.

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Abstract: The primary function of the skin is to serve as a protective barrier against the environment. Loss of the integrity of large portions of the skin as a result of injury or illness may lead to major disability or even death. Every year in the United States more than 1.25 million people have burns1 and 6.5 million have chronic skin ulcers caused by pressure, venous stasis, or diabetes mellitus.2 The primary goals of the treatment of wounds are rapid wound closure and a functional and aesthetically satisfactory scar. Recent advances in cellular and molecular biology have greatly expanded our understanding . . .

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5,462 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Characterization and Distribution of Water-repellent, Self-cleaning Plant Surfaces

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Christoph Neinhuis, Wilhelm Barthlott

01 Jun 1997-Annals of Botany

TL;DR: The importance of roughness and water-repellency, respectively, as the basis of an anti-adhesive, self-cleaning surface, in comparison to other functions of microstructures, is discussed.

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2,482 citations

"Biomimetics: lessons from nature--a..." refers background in this paper

...It has been reported that all superhydrophobic and self-cleaning leaves consist of an intrinsic hierarchical structure (Barthlott & Neinhuis 1997; Neinhuis & Barthlott 1997; Koch et al. 2008, 2009, in press a)....
[...]
...A (2009) A model surface for superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning is provided by the leaves of the lotus plant (N. nucifera; figure 6a; Barthlott & Neinhuis 1997; Neinhuis & Barthlott 1997; Wagner et al. 2003; Bhushan & Jung 2006; Koch et al. 2008, 2009, in press a)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Adhesive force of a single gecko foot-hair

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Kellar Autumn¹, Yiching A. Liang², S. Tonia Hsieh³, Wolfgang Zesch³, Wai Pang Chan³, Thomas W. Kenny², Ronald S. Fearing³, Robert J. Full³ - Show less +4 more•Institutions (3)

Lewis & Clark College¹, Stanford University², University of California, Berkeley³

08 Jun 2000-Nature

TL;DR: The first direct measurements of single setal force are reported by using a two-dimensional micro-electro-mechanical systems force sensor and a wire as a force gauge and revealed that a seta is ten times more effective at adhesion than predicted from maximal estimates on whole animals.

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Abstract: Geckos are exceptional in their ability to climb rapidly up smooth vertical surfaces1,2,3. Microscopy has shown that a gecko's foot has nearly five hundred thousand keratinous hairs or setae. Each 30–130 µm long seta is only one-tenth the diameter of a human hair and contains hundreds of projections terminating in 0.2–0.5 µm spatula-shaped structures2,4. After nearly a century of anatomical description2,4,5,6, here we report the first direct measurements of single setal force by using a two-dimensional micro-electro-mechanical systems force sensor7 and a wire as a force gauge. Measurements revealed that a seta is ten times more effective at adhesion than predicted from maximal estimates on whole animals. Adhesive force values support the hypothesis that individual seta operate by van der Waals forces8,9. The gecko's peculiar behaviour of toe uncurling and peeling2 led us to discover two aspects of setal function which increase their effectiveness. A unique macroscopic orientation and preloading of the seta increased attachment force 600-fold above that of frictional measurements of the material. Suitably orientated setae reduced the forces necessary to peel the toe by simply detaching above a critical angle with the substratum.

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2,396 citations

"Biomimetics: lessons from nature--a..." refers background in this paper

...(a) Tokay gecko looking (i) top-down and (ii) bottom-up (Autumn et al. 2000)....
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...…attachment pads of several animals, including many insects (e.g. beetles and flies), spiders and lizards (e.g. geckos), are capable of attaching to a variety of surfaces and are used for locomotion, even on vertical walls or across ceilings (Autumn et al. 2000; Gorb 2001; Bhushan 2007b, 2008)....
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...geckos), are capable of attaching to a variety of surfaces and are used for locomotion, even on vertical walls or across ceilings (Autumn et al. 2000; Gorb 2001; Bhushan 2007b, 2008)....
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...The gecko skin comprises a complex hierarchical structure of lamellae, setae, branches and spatula (Autumn et al. 2000; Bhushan 2007b)....
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...The hierarchical structures of a gecko foot (b) a gecko foot (Autumn et al. 2000) and (c) a gecko toe (Autumn 2006)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Nature’s hierarchical materials

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Peter Fratzl¹, Richard Weinkamer¹•Institutions (1)

Max Planck Society¹

01 Nov 2007-Progress in Materials Science

TL;DR: In this paper, the basic principles involved in designing hierarchical biological materials, such as cellular and composite architectures, adapative growth and as well as remodeling, are discussed, and examples that are found to utilize these strategies include wood, bone, tendon, and glass sponges.

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2,274 citations

"Biomimetics: lessons from nature--a..." refers background in this paper

...A (2009) damaged living tissues can heal themselves by the formation of an intermediate tissue (based on the response to inflammation) followed by the scar tissue (Fratzl & Weinkamer 2007)....
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...As a result, biological materials and tissues are created by hierarchical structuring at all levels in order to adapt form and structure to the function, which have the capability of adaptation to changing conditions and self-healing (Fratzl & Weinkamer 2007; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008a)....
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