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Journal Article•DOI•

Brake wear particle emissions: a review

Theodoros Grigoratos, Giorgio Martini
01 Feb 2015-Environmental Science and Pollution Research (Springer Berlin Heidelberg)-Vol. 22, Iss: 4, pp 2491-2504
TL;DR: The aim of the present literature review study is to present the state-of-the-art of the different aspects regarding PM resulting from brake wear and provide all the necessary information in terms of importance, physicochemical characteristics, emission factors and possible health effects.
Abstract: Traffic-related sources have been recognized as a significant contributor of particulate matter particularly within major cities. Exhaust and non-exhaust traffic-related sources are estimated to contribute almost equally to traffic-related PM10 emissions. Non-exhaust particles can be generated either from non-exhaust sources such as brake, tyre, clutch and road surface wear or already exist in the form of deposited material at the roadside and become resuspended due to traffic-induced turbulence. Among non-exhaust sources, brake wear can be a significant particulate matter (PM) contributor, particularly within areas with high traffic density and braking frequency. Studies mention that in urban environments, brake wear can contribute up to 55 % by mass to total non-exhaust traffic-related PM10 emissions and up to 21 % by mass to total traffic-related PM10 emissions, while in freeways, this contribution is lower due to lower braking frequency. As exhaust emissions control become stricter, relative contributions of non-exhaust sources—and therefore brake wear—to traffic-related emissions will become more significant and will raise discussions on possible regulatory needs. The aim of the present literature review study is to present the state-of-the-art of the different aspects regarding PM resulting from brake wear and provide all the necessary information in terms of importance, physicochemical characteristics, emission factors and possible health effects.

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Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
Wear and Tear of Tyres: A Stealthy Source of Microplastics in the Environment.

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Pieter Jan Kole1, Ansje Löhr1, Frank Van Belleghem1, Ad M.J. Ragas1•
Open University1
20 Oct 2017-International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
TL;DR: It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in the authors' environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative technical solutions are being sought.
Abstract: Wear and tear from tyres significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. This paper compiles the fragmented knowledge on tyre wear and tear characteristics, amounts of particles emitted, pathways in the environment, and the possible effects on humans. The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tyres (100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tyres (2%), artificial turf (12–50%), brake wear (8%) and road markings (5%). Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tyre wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM2.5) is estimated to consist of tyre wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in 2012. The wear and tear also enters our food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks. It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in our environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative technical solutions are being sought. This requires a global effort from all stakeholders; consumers, regulators, industry and researchers alike.

628 citations

Cites background from "Brake wear particle emissions: a re..."

  • ...A more extensive overview of the available studies is provided by Grigoratos and Martini [20]....

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  • ...Grigoratos and Martini [58] reviewed brake wear particle emissions without considering Hillenbrand and colleagues [37]....

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  • ...Grigoratos and Martini [58] reviewed brake wear particle emissions without...

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  • ...Counterparts can be cast iron and sometimes composites [58]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Cardiovascular effects of air pollution.

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Thomas Bourdrel, Marie-Abele Bind1, Yannick Béjot2, Olivier Morel3, Jean-François Argacha •
Harvard University1, University of Burgundy2, University of Strasbourg3
21 Jul 2017-Archives of Cardiovascular Diseases
TL;DR: Experimental studies indicate that some pollutants have more harmful cardiovascular effects, such as combustion-derived PM2.5 and ultrafine particles, and promotion of safer air quality appears to be a new challenge in cardiovascular disease prevention.

464 citations

Cites background from "Brake wear particle emissions: a re..."

  • ...Traffic emissions also include non-exhaust emissions, such as metals from brake wear particles, which could also lead to oxidative stress reactions, but their specific effects have not been studied extensively [61]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Tire wear particles in the aquatic environment - A review on generation, analysis, occurrence, fate and effects.

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Stephan Wagner1, Thorsten Hüffer2, Philipp Klöckner1, Maren Wehrhahn2, Thilo Hofmann2, Thorsten Reemtsma1 •
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ1, University of Vienna2
01 Aug 2018-Water Research
TL;DR: It is concluded that reliable knowledge on transport mechanism to surface waters, concentrations in surface waters and sediments, effects of aging, environmental half-lives of TWP as well as effects on aquatic organisms are missing are missing and need to be addressed to allow for the assessment of risk ofTWP in an aquatic environment.

417 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Atmospheric transport is a major pathway of microplastics to remote regions

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Nikolaos Evangeliou1, Henrik Grythe1, Zbigniew Klimont2, Chris Heyes2, Sabine Eckhardt1, Susana Lopez-Aparicio1, Andreas Stohl1, Andreas Stohl3 •
Norwegian Institute for Air Research1, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis2, University of Vienna3
14 Jul 2020-Nature Communications
TL;DR: It is shown that atmospheric transport is a major pathway for road plastic pollution over remote regions, and it is suggested that the Arctic may be a particularly sensitive receptor region, where the light-absorbing properties of TWPs and BWPs may also cause accelerated warming and melting of the cryosphere.
Abstract: In recent years, marine, freshwater and terrestrial pollution with microplastics has been discussed extensively, whereas atmospheric microplastic transport has been largely overlooked. Here, we present global simulations of atmospheric transport of microplastic particles produced by road traffic (TWPs – tire wear particles and BWPs – brake wear particles), a major source that can be quantified relatively well. We find a high transport efficiencies of these particles to remote regions. About 34% of the emitted coarse TWPs and 30% of the emitted coarse BWPs (100 kt yr−1 and 40 kt yr−1 respectively) were deposited in the World Ocean. These amounts are of similar magnitude as the total estimated direct and riverine transport of TWPs and fibres to the ocean (64 kt yr−1). We suggest that the Arctic may be a particularly sensitive receptor region, where the light-absorbing properties of TWPs and BWPs may also cause accelerated warming and melting of the cryosphere. Plastic pollution is a critical concern across diverse ecosystems, yet most research has focused on terrestrial and aquatic transport, neglecting other mechanisms. Here the authors show that atmospheric transport is a major pathway for road plastic pollution over remote regions.

373 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Tire Abrasion as a Major Source of Microplastics in the Environment

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Frank Sommer, Volker Dietze, Anja Baum, Jan Sauer, Stefan Gilge, Christoph Maschowski, Reto Gieré1 •
University of Pennsylvania1
01 Jan 2018-Aerosol and Air Quality Research
TL;DR: In this paper, passive-samplers were placed near highly frequented roads in industrial, agricultural, and urban environments with the aim of collecting and characterizing super-coarse (> 10 µm) airborne particles.
Abstract: Traffic-related non-exhaust particulate matter mainly consists of tire wear, brake wear, and road wear. For this study, passive-samplers were placed near highly frequented roads in industrial, agricultural, and urban environments with the aim of collecting and characterizing super-coarse (> 10 µm) airborne particles. Single-particle analysis using SEM-EDX was conducted on more than 500 particles with nearly 1500 spectra to determine their size, shape, volume, and chemical composition. The ambient aerosol near all studied roads is dominated by traffic-related abrasion particles, amounting to approximately 90 vol%. The majority of the particles were composites of tire-, road-, and brake-abrasion material. The particle assemblages differed in size distribution, composition, and structure depending on driving speed, traffic flow, and traffic fleet. Our study documents that tire wear significantly contributes to the flux of microplastics into the environment. A decrease in the release of this abrasion material, however, is unlikely in the near future.

269 citations

Cites background from "Brake wear particle emissions: a re..."

  • ...According to Stechmann (1993), Chan and Stachowiak (2004), Adachino and Tainosho (2004), Hillenbrand et al. (2005), Grigoratos and Martini (2015), and Wahid (2018) typical brake discs (Fig....

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  • ...Therefore, braking maneuvers are frequent for both LDVs and HDVs, generating high numbers of brake-wear particles (see also Sommer et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 18: 2014–2028, 2018 2025 Grigoratos and Martini, 2015; Wakeling et al., 2017)....

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  • ...The interaction between tire and road surface as well as brake pad and brake disk necessarily yields a frictional connection and thus, a reduction of this abrasion material is not to be expected in the near future (Amato et al., 2012; Grigoratos and Martini, 2015)....

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References
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Journal Article•DOI•
Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long-term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution

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C. Arden Pope1, Richard T. Burnett2, Michael J. Thun2, Eugenia E. Calle, Daniel Krewski, Kazuhiko Ito, George D. Thurston •
Brigham Young University1, American Medical Association2
06 Mar 2002-JAMA
TL;DR: Fine particulate and sulfur oxide--related pollution were associated with all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality and long-term exposure to combustion-related fine particulate air pollution is an important environmental risk factor for cardiopULmonary and lung cancer mortality.
Abstract: ContextAssociations have been found between day-to-day particulate air pollution and increased risk of various adverse health outcomes, including cardiopulmonary mortality. However, studies of health effects of long-term particulate air pollution have been less conclusive.ObjectiveTo assess the relationship between long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution and all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsVital status and cause of death data were collected by the American Cancer Society as part of the Cancer Prevention II study, an ongoing prospective mortality study, which enrolled approximately 1.2 million adults in 1982. Participants completed a questionnaire detailing individual risk factor data (age, sex, race, weight, height, smoking history, education, marital status, diet, alcohol consumption, and occupational exposures). The risk factor data for approximately 500 000 adults were linked with air pollution data for metropolitan areas throughout the United States and combined with vital status and cause of death data through December 31, 1998.Main Outcome MeasureAll-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality.ResultsFine particulate and sulfur oxide–related pollution were associated with all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality. Each 10-µg/m3 elevation in fine particulate air pollution was associated with approximately a 4%, 6%, and 8% increased risk of all-cause, cardiopulmonary, and lung cancer mortality, respectively. Measures of coarse particle fraction and total suspended particles were not consistently associated with mortality.ConclusionLong-term exposure to combustion-related fine particulate air pollution is an important environmental risk factor for cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality.

7,803 citations

"Brake wear particle emissions: a re..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Many studies have demonstrated that particle size affects particle deposition in the respiratory tract (Kumar et al. 2013; Poepping and Ginda 2010; Pope et al. 2002; Samet et al. 2000)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles

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Günter Oberdörster1, Eva Oberdörster, Jan Oberdörster•
University of Rochester1
22 Mar 2005-Environmental Health Perspectives
TL;DR: Results of older bio-kinetic studies with NSPs and newer epidemiologic and toxicologic studies with airborne ultrafine particles can be viewed as the basis for the expanding field of nanotoxicology, which can be defined as safety evaluation of engineered nanostructures and nanodevices.
Abstract: Although humans have been exposed to airborne nanosized particles (NSPs; < 100 nm) throughout their evolutionary stages, such exposure has increased dramatically over the last century due to anthropogenic sources. The rapidly developing field of nanotechnology is likely to become yet another source through inhalation, ingestion, skin uptake, and injection of engineered nanomaterials. Information about safety and potential hazards is urgently needed. Results of older bio-kinetic studies with NSPs and newer epidemiologic and toxicologic studies with airborne ultrafine particles can be viewed as the basis for the expanding field of nanotoxicology, which can be defined as safety evaluation of engineered nanostructures and nanodevices. Collectively, some emerging concepts of nanotoxicology can be identified from the results of these studies. When inhaled, specific sizes of NSPs are efficiently deposited by diffusional mechanisms in all regions of the respiratory tract. The small size facilitates uptake into cells and transcytosis across epithelial and endothelial cells into the blood and lymph circulation to reach potentially sensitive target sites such as bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and heart. Access to the central nervous system and ganglia via translocation along axons and dendrites of neurons has also been observed. NSPs penetrating the skin distribute via uptake into lymphatic channels. Endocytosis and biokinetics are largely dependent on NSP surface chemistry (coating) and in vivo surface modifications. The greater surface area per mass compared with larger-sized particles of the same chemistry renders NSPs more active biologically. This activity includes a potential for inflammatory and pro-oxidant, but also antioxidant, activity, which can explain early findings showing mixed results in terms of toxicity of NSPs to environmentally relevant species. Evidence of mitochondrial distribution and oxidative stress response after NSP endocytosis points to a need for basic research on their interactions with subcellular structures. Additional considerations for assessing safety of engineered NSPs include careful selections of appropriate and relevant doses/concentrations, the likelihood of increased effects in a compromised organism, and also the benefits of possible desirable effects. An interdisciplinary team approach (e.g., toxicology, materials science, medicine, molecular biology, and bioinformatics, to name a few) is mandatory for nanotoxicology research to arrive at an appropriate risk assessment.

7,092 citations

"Brake wear particle emissions: a re..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Coarse particles are mainly deposited in the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat), while ultrafine particles penetrate deep into the lungs (Poepping and Ginda 2010), thus posing hazards related to oxidative stress and inflammation (Balakrishna et al. 2009; Karlsson et al. 2005; Oberdörster et al. 2005)....

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  • ...size distribution, agglomeration state, chemical composition, surface area, chemistry and charge) need to be taken into account when investigating wear particle toxicity (Oberdörster et al. 2005), among which particle size and chemical composition seem to be the most important....

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  • ...…key factors (i.e. size distribution, agglomeration state, chemical composition, surface area, chemistry and charge) need to be taken into account when investigating wear particle toxicity (Oberdörster et al. 2005), among which particle size and chemical composition seem to be the most important....

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  • ...…are mainly deposited in the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat), while ultrafine particles penetrate deep into the lungs (Poepping and Ginda 2010), thus posing hazards related to oxidative stress and inflammation (Balakrishna et al. 2009; Karlsson et al. 2005; Oberdörster et al. 2005)....

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  • ...…that ultrafine particles may become blood-borne and translocate to other tissues such as the liver, kidneys and brain (Geiser and Kreyling 1999; Oberdörster et al. 2005), while experiments to animals have shown translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to the brain (Tjalve and Henriksson…...

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Journal Article•DOI•
Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality in 20 U.S. Cities, 1987–1994

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Jonathan M. Samet1, Francesca Dominici1, Frank C. Curriero1, Ivan Coursac1, Scott L. Zeger1 •
Johns Hopkins University1
14 Dec 2000-The New England Journal of Medicine
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of five major outdoor-air pollutants on daily mortality rates in 20 of the largest cities and metropolitan areas in the United States from 1987 to 1994 were assessed, including PM10, ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.
Abstract: Background Air pollution in cities has been linked to increased rates of mortality and morbidity in developed and developing countries. Although these findings have helped lead to a tightening of air-quality standards, their validity with respect to public health has been questioned. Methods We assessed the effects of five major outdoor-air pollutants on daily mortality rates in 20 of the largest cities and metropolitan areas in the United States from 1987 to 1994. The pollutants were particulate matter that is less than 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM10), ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. We used a two-stage analytic approach that pooled data from multiple locations. Results After taking into account potential confounding by other pollutants, we found consistent evidence that the level of PM10 is associated with the rate of death from all causes and from cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. The estimated increase in the relative rate of death from all causes was 0.51 pe...

2,043 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: a review.

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Alistair J. Thorpe1, Roy M. Harrison1•
University of Birmingham1
01 Aug 2008-Science of The Total Environment
TL;DR: It is concluded that with the exception of brake dust particles which may be identified from their copper (Cu) and antimony (Sb) content, unequivocal identification of particles from other sources is likely to prove extremely difficult, either because of the lack of suitable tracer elements or compounds, or of the interactions between sources prior to the emission process.

1,290 citations

"Brake wear particle emissions: a re..." refers background or methods or result in this paper

  • ...Brake linings generally comprise five main components: binders, fibres, fillers, frictional additives or lubricants and abrasives (Boulter 2006; Chan and Stachowiak 2004; Kukutschová et al. 2011; Thorpe and Harrison 2008; Wahlström 2009; Wahlström 2011)....

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  • ...%) has been reported in older studies (Thorpe and Harrison 2008), with however latest studies showing a remarkable decrease (0....

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  • ...…emission are tyre, brake, clutch and road surface wear, with other potential sources being engine wear, abrasion of wheel bearings and corrosion of other vehicle components, street furniture and crash barriers (Barlow et al. 2007; Boulter 2006; Pant and Harrison 2013; Thorpe and Harrison 2008)....

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  • ...Other metals such as Ba, Mg, Mn, Ni, Sn, Cd, Cr, Ti, K and Sb have also been found in concentrations lower than 0.1 wt.% (Boulter 2006; Kukutschová et al. 2011; Thorpe and Harrison 2008)....

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  • ...The most important abrasion processes which result in direct particulate matter (PM) emission are tyre, brake, clutch and road surface wear, with other potential sources being engine wear, abrasion of wheel bearings and corrosion of other vehicle components, street furniture and crash barriers (Barlow et al. 2007; Boulter 2006; Pant and Harrison 2013; Thorpe and Harrison 2008)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review

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Pallavi Pant1, Roy M. Harrison1•
University of Birmingham1
01 Oct 2013-Atmospheric Environment
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed the nature of the particle emissions from road vehicles including both exhaust and non-exhaust (abrasion and re-suspension sources) and briefly reviewed the various methods available for quantification of the road traffic contribution.

891 citations

"Brake wear particle emissions: a re..." refers background in this paper

  • ...There are numerous studies reporting that exhaust and non-exhaust traffic-related sources contribute almost equally to total trafficrelated PM10 emissions, while due to continuous reduction of exhaust emissions, it is expected that the relative contribution of non-exhaust sources will increase in the forthcoming years (Amato et al. 2011; Amato et al. 2014; Bukowiecki et al. 2009a; Denby et al. 2013; Denier Van der Gon et al. 2013; Ketzel et al. 2007; Pant and Harrison 2013; Querol et al. 2004)....

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  • ...Exhaust particles have been very well studied and characterized, while technological improvements have resulted in a significant reduction of their emissions (Amato et al. 2014; Denier Van der Gon et al. 2013; Pant and Harrison 2013)....

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  • ...…emission are tyre, brake, clutch and road surface wear, with other potential sources being engine wear, abrasion of wheel bearings and corrosion of other vehicle components, street furniture and crash barriers (Barlow et al. 2007; Boulter 2006; Pant and Harrison 2013; Thorpe and Harrison 2008)....

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  • ...…engines, it is expected that the relative contribution of brake wear particles to the total PM levels will increase in the forthcoming years making the need for characterization of these particles urgent (Amato et al. 2014; Denier Van der Gon et al. 2013; Pant and Harrison 2013; Wik and Dave 2009)....

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  • ...Sternbeck et al. (2002) proposed the ratio of Cu/Sb (4.6±2.3) as typical of brake wear particles but differences often appear in the literature due to variations in brake pad composition and site characteristics (Adachi and Tainosho 2004; Hjortenkrans et al. 2007; Pant and Harrison 2013)....

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Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: a review.

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Alistair J. Thorpe, Roy M. Harrison
Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review

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Estimation of the Contributions of Brake Dust, Tire Wear, and Resuspension to Nonexhaust Traffic Particles Derived from Atmospheric Measurements

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08 Jun 2012-Environmental Science & Technology
Roy M. Harrison, Alan M. Jones, Johanna K. Gietl, Jianxin Yin, David C. Green 
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Bhagwan D. Garg, Steven H. Cadle, Patricia A. Mulawa, Peter J. Groblicki, Chris Laroo, Graham A. Parr 
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12 Aug 2003-Environmental Science & Technology
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