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Journal ArticleDOI

Capturing the lost phosphorus.

TL;DR: Recovering the lost P in animal wastes is technically and economically more tractable, and it is the focus for this review of promising P-capture technologies.
About: This article is published in Chemosphere.The article was published on 2011-08-01 and is currently open access. It has received 406 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Phosphorus.

Summary (2 min read)

Flow of P Global flow in million metric tons P year

  • Table 1 shows that the two largest flows of lost P are soil erosion and runoff (46% of mined P) and animal wastes (40%); this estimate is only for agricultural land where mined P was applied.
  • Almost all of the P in erosion and runoff goes directly into surface waters, where it accelerates eutrophication.
  • Most animal-waste P finds its way to surface waters, since regulations seldom control the fate of P from animal operations.
  • The P discharged in human sewage and sewage-treatment sludge (15% combined) is significant, but considerably smaller than from agricultural runoff and animals.
  • While desirable, deployment of urine separation would capture only a small fraction the mined P input.

1.2. P removal and capture

  • Then, the authors look at four major approaches for removing inorganic P from the water stream in a form that can be reused: precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, and biological uptake.
  • In each case, the authors provide a succinct summary of the most promising options for recovery from high-organic/high-P streams.
  • Table 2 summarizes all the recovery approaches and indicates whether they are ready for commercial use or require more research and adaptation.
  • The authors also provide detailed information on specific technologies, their performance experiences, and commercialization status in Supplementary material.

2. Conversion of organic P to inorganic P

  • Advanced-oxidation processes (AOPs) (Crittenden et al., 2005) are promising for converting organic P to the more readily removable inorganic P form in the low-concentration streams.
  • The AOPs include ozonation, ozone/peroxide, UV/peroxide, titanium dioxide photocatalysis, and Fenton's reaction.
  • The non-specific nature of AOP attack means that AOP technology may be impractical for direct use with high-strength streams, such as animal wastes.
  • Radical reactions with the copious amounts of organic matter present consume too much oxidant to be practical or economical.
  • It is possible that P-laden liquor after biological energy capture could be treated with advanced oxidation to convert released organic P to inorganic P.

3. Separation and recovery of inorganic P by precipitation

  • The organic material may need processing to make it available for P recovery into a useful product.
  • Sludge and sludge ash, which may contain 40-95% of the P from incoming wastewater flows, require chemical or thermochemical treatment to dissolve the available P and remove heavy metals.
  • Technologies such as KREPRO, KemiCond, Seabourne, Aqua Reci, BioCon, SEPHOS, and PRISA are used to recover P from wastewater sludge (Berg and Schaum, 2005, Montag et al., 2009) .

4. Separation and recovery of inorganic P by adsorption

  • Metal oxides are found in numerous industrial byproducts, thereby making these byproducts attractive candidates for use as adsorbents for P removal and recovery.
  • As byproducts, these adsorbents may be relatively inexpensive compared to commercial alternatives, but large-scale availability and consistent supplies may be difficult to guarantee.
  • Additionally, the bioavailability of the resulting metal-bound compounds is variable.
  • Steel slag, which contains iron oxides and alumina, is the magnetically separated industrial waste from steel factories.
  • Iron-oxide tailings derived from mineral-processing industries and coal slag are other relevant byproduct adsorbents.

5. Separation and recovery of inorganic P by ion exchange

  • Iron-based layered double hydroxides (LDH) (Ma2+Feb3+(OH)2(a+b)CO3b/22-mH2O clay-based anion exchangers) can achieve P removal based on ion exchange between phosphate and carbonate ions.
  • Metal-loaded (e.g., Zr(IV), Cu(II), Co(II), Fe(III), Al(III), Y(III), La(III), and Mo(VI)) chelating resins (ligand exchangers) have recently been promoted for their anion selectivity and trace nutrient removal capabilities in aqueous solution.
  • Nontraditional ion exchange materials, including zeolites, have been suggested as alternates based on their potential specificity for phosphate (Jung et al., 2006 , Yamada et al., 2006) .
  • Hydrotalcite (Mg0.683Al0.317(OH)1.995(CO3)0.028Cl0.226⋅0.54H2O) is a positively charged brucite-like octahedral layer formed by partial substitution of divalent and trivalent metals along an inner layer consisting of anions and water molecules (Miyata, 1975) .

6. Separation and recovery of inorganic P by biological uptake

  • The use of microbes expressing the PstS protein in water treatment applications requires that the microorganisms survive in the reactor.
  • Since only certain microbes express the PstS protein, including marine cyanobacteria, their use in fresh water systems may be limited.
  • The current development status of P removal using the PstS protein is theoretical, albeit promising.
  • Restrictions on the possible release of genetically engineered microbes into the environment may hinder implementation of this technology.

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Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A comprehensive and critical review of the literature on the effectiveness of a number of sorbents, especially some novel ones that have recently emerged, in removing and recovering phosphate can be found in this article.
Abstract: Sorption is an effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly treatment process for the removal of phosphorus from wastewater sources which otherwise can cause eutrophication of receiving waters. Phosphorus in wastewater, if economically recovered, can partly overcome the future scarcity of phosphorus resulting from exhaustion of natural phosphate rock reserves. The authors present a comprehensive and critical review of the literature on the effectiveness of a number of sorbents, especially some novel ones that have recently emerged, in removing and recovering phosphate. Mechanisms and thermodynamics of sorption, as well as regeneration of sorbents for reuse using acids, bases, and salts, are critically examined.

461 citations


Cites background from "Capturing the lost phosphorus."

  • ...Sludge produced during biological phosphate removal processes, especially by the enhanced biological phosphate removal process (EBPR) are directly applied to land as soil amendments to increase soils’ phosphorus fertility (Rittmann et al., 2011)....

    [...]

  • ...Phosphate recovery in the form of struvite (magnesium ammonium hexahydrate) is practiced in many countries and is used as high-quality phosphate fertilizer (De-Bashan and Bashan, 2004; Le Corre et al., 2009; Rittmann et al., 2011)....

    [...]

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article provides a comprehensive overview of the range of benefits of recovering P from waste streams, i.e., the total value of recovered P, as well as other assets that are associated with P and can be recovered in parallel, such as energy, nitrogen, metals and minerals, and water.
Abstract: Phosphorus (P) is a critical, geographically concentrated, nonrenewable resource necessary to support global food production. In excess (e.g., due to runoff or wastewater discharges), P is also a primary cause of eutrophication. To reconcile the simultaneous shortage and overabundance of P, lost P flows must be recovered and reused, alongside improvements in P-use efficiency. While this motivation is increasingly being recognized, little P recovery is practiced today, as recovered P generally cannot compete with the relatively low cost of mined P. Therefore, P is often captured to prevent its release into the environment without beneficial recovery and reuse. However, additional incentives for P recovery emerge when accounting for the total value of P recovery. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the range of benefits of recovering P from waste streams, i.e., the total value of recovering P. This approach accounts for P products, as well as other assets that are associated with P and can be recovered in parallel, such as energy, nitrogen, metals and minerals, and water. Additionally, P recovery provides valuable services to society and the environment by protecting and improving environmental quality, enhancing efficiency of waste treatment facilities, and improving food security and social equity. The needs to make P recovery a reality are also discussed, including business models, bottlenecks, and policy and education strategies.

435 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper has reviewed the nutrients removal and recovery in various BES including microbial fuel cells and microbial electrolysis cells, discussed the influence factors and potential problems, and identified the key challenges for nitrogen and phosphorus removal/recovery in a BES.

408 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Hydrochars produced from hydrothermal carbonisation at 250 °C have been compared to low and high temperature pyrolysis chars produced at 400-450 °C and 600-650 °C respectively, which suggests that surface area is not the most important factor influencing char ammonium adsorption capacity, while char calcium and magnesium contents may influence phosphate adsorptive capacity.

367 citations


Cites background from "Capturing the lost phosphorus."

  • ...Phosphate recovery is also 49 important because an essential plant nutrient, there are growing concerns about its 50 future availability (Rittmann et al. 2011)....

    [...]

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors provides an updated and integrated synthesis of the biophysical, social, geopolitical, and institutional challenges and opportunities for food security, and provides an overview of the current state of the phosphate supply chain.
Abstract: Phosphorus security is emerging as one of the twenty-first century's greatest global sustainability challenges. Phosphorus has no substitute in food production, and the use of phosphate fertilizers in the past 50 years has boosted crop yields and helped feed billions of people. However, these advantages have come at a serious cost. Mobilizing phosphate rock into the environment at rates vastly faster than the natural cycle has not only polluted many of the world's freshwater bodies and oceans, but has also created a human dependence on a single nonrenewable resource. The 2008 phosphate price spike attracted unprecedented attention to this global situation. This review provides an updated and integrated synthesis of the biophysical, social, geopolitical, and institutional challenges and opportunities for food security. Remaining phosphorus resources are becoming increasingly scarce, expensive, and inequitably distributed. All farmers require fertilizers, yet a sixth of the world's farmers and their familie...

365 citations

References
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of wastewater engineering and its application in the field of wastewater treatment, including conversion factors, physical properties of selected gases and the composition of air, and water properties.
Abstract: 1. Wastewater Engineering: An Overview 2. Constituents in Wastewater 3. Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings 4. Introduction to Process Analysis and Selection 5. Physical Unit Operations 6. Chemical Unit Processes 7. Fundamentals of Biological Treatment 8. Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes 9. Attached Growth and Combined Biological Treatment Processes 10. Anaerobic Suspended and Attached Growth Biological Treatment Processes 11. Advanced Wastewater Treatment 12. Disinfection Processes 13. Water Reuse 14. Treatment, Reuse, and Disposal of Solids and Biosolids 15. Issues Related to Treatment-Plant Performance Appendixes A Conversion Factors B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air C Physical Properties of Water D Solubility of Dissolved Oxygen in Water as a Function of Salinity and Barometric Pressure E MPN Tables and Their Use F Carbonate Equilibrium G Moody Diagrams for the Analysis of Flow in Pipes

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TL;DR: The formation of dead zones has been exacerbated by the increase in primary production and consequent worldwide coastal eutrophication fueled by riverine runoff of fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Dead zones in the coastal oceans have spread exponentially since the 1960s and have serious consequences for ecosystem functioning. The formation of dead zones has been exacerbated by the increase in primary production and consequent worldwide coastal eutrophication fueled by riverine runoff of fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels. Enhanced primary production results in an accumulation of particulate organic matter, which encourages microbial activity and the consumption of dissolved oxygen in bottom waters. Dead zones have now been reported from more than 400 systems, affecting a total area of more than 245,000 square kilometers, and are probably a key stressor on marine ecosystems.

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15 Aug 2008-Science
TL;DR: Dead zones in the coastal oceans have spread exponentially since the 1960s and have serious consequences for ecosystem functioning, exacerbated by the increase in primary production and consequent worldwide coastal eutrophication fueled by riverine runoff of fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels.
Abstract: Dead zones in the coastal oceans have spread exponentially since the 1960s and have serious consequences for ecosystem functioning. The formation of dead zones has been exacerbated by the increase in primary production and consequent worldwide coastal eutrophication fueled by riverine runoff of fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels. Enhanced primary production results in an accumulation of particulate organic matter, which encourages microbial activity and the consumption of dissolved oxygen in bottom waters. Dead zones have now been reported from more than 400 systems, affecting a total area of more than 245,000 square kilometers, and are probably a key stressor on marine ecosystems.

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TL;DR: In this article, the authors put forward the case for including long-term phosphorus scarcity on the priority agenda for global food security, and presented opportunities for recovering phosphorus and reducing demand together with institutional challenges.
Abstract: Food production requires application of fertilizers containing phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium on agricultural fields in order to sustain crop yields. However modern agriculture is dependent on phosphorus derived from phosphate rock, which is a non-renewable resource and current global reserves may be depleted in 50–100 years. While phosphorus demand is projected to increase, the expected global peak in phosphorus production is predicted to occur around 2030. The exact timing of peak phosphorus production might be disputed, however it is widely acknowledged within the fertilizer industry that the quality of remaining phosphate rock is decreasing and production costs are increasing. Yet future access to phosphorus receives little or no international attention. This paper puts forward the case for including long-term phosphorus scarcity on the priority agenda for global food security. Opportunities for recovering phosphorus and reducing demand are also addressed together with institutional challenges.

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2,408 citations

Frequently Asked Questions (20)
Q1. What are the contributions in "Capturing the lost phosphorus" ?

Recovering the lost P in animal wastes is technically and economically more tractable, and it is the focus for this review of promising Pcapture technologies. Once present as phosphate, the P can be captured in a reusable form by four approaches. Less developed, but promising are adsorption to iron-based adsorbents, ion exchange to phosphate-selective solids, and uptake by photosynthetic microorganisms or P-selective proteins. 

Iron-oxide particles successfully adsorb phosphate, and the particles themselves are effectively removed from the waste stream using microfiltration (Kang et al., 2003). 

Technologies such as KREPRO, KemiCond, Seabourne, Aqua Reci, BioCon, SEPHOS, and PRISA are used to recover P from wastewater sludge (Berg and Schaum, 2005, Montag et al., 2009). 

To make P more bioavailable, it may be necessary to acidify the product and/or add chelating agents (e.g., EDTA) (Zhang et al., 2010). 

The use of microbes expressing the PstS protein in water treatment applications requires that the microorganisms survive in the reactor. 

The released metal cations (Mg2+, Ca2+, and Fe3+) and/or their hydroxides effectively enhance P removal by adsorption followed by precipitation. 

Advanced-oxidation processes (AOPs) (Crittenden et al., 2005) are promising for converting organic P to the more readily removable inorganic P form in the low-concentration streams. 

Struvite precipitation already is applied to anaerobic sludge digestion, where high concentrations of inorganic P and ammonium are present (Durrant et al., 1999, Stratful et al., 1999). 

organic P is present in municipal, agricultural, and animal biosolids due to its fixation into cellular material or specific uptake and intracellular storage. 

A major challenge for using photosynthetic microorganisms is separating the microbial cells from the treated water (Talbot and Delanoue, 1993, Sawayama et al., 1998a, Sawayama et al., 1998b). 

it may be possible to use EBPR to capture P in the anaerobic effluent if the BOD:P ratio is correct and aerobic biodegradation of residual COD is required. 

organic P is often present in natural waters in the form of plant or animal tissue, nucleic acids, nucleotides, and phospholipids in the bodies of aquatic organisms (USEPA, 1983, Murphy, 2007). 

Separation and recovery of inorganic P by precipitation Chemical precipitation targeting the removal of P from wastewater is a well-established practice begun in the 1950s (Morse et al., 1998). 

Hydrotalcite (Mg0.683Al0.317(OH)1.995(CO3)0.028Cl0.226⋅0.54H2O) is a positively charged brucite-like octahedral layer formed by partial substitution of divalent and trivalent metals along an inner layer consisting of anions and water molecules (Miyata, 1975). 

Iron-based sorbents can achieve high levels of P removal due to the strong affinity of the phosphate anion for positively charged ferric iron. 

The adsorption removal mechanism employed in coagulation remains the best-understood and most widely used mechanism for P removal (Morse et al., 1998, Karapinar et al., 2004). 

the authors look at four major approaches for removing inorganic P from the water stream in a form that can be reused: precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, and biological uptake. 

Fig. 1 summarizes the strategy for recovering the large flow of lost P in animal waste so that the P can be used in agriculture to replace a significant fraction of mined P. 

It is effective for removing P from wastewater and can recover phosphate in the form of HAP from the concentrated desorption solution using CaCl2 additions (Kuzawa et al., 2006). 

each of the pretreatment approaches has challenges related to one or more of capital cost, energy consumption, chemical usage, odor, and corrosion.