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Journal ArticleDOI

Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: Knowledge, confidence and training within a contemporary UK social work practice and policy context

01 Dec 2016-British Journal of Social Work (Oxford University Press)-Vol. 46, Iss: 8, pp 2208-2226
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine social workers' confidence, understanding, and awareness of child sexual abuse (CSA) as it was suggested that a decline in numbers of reported incidents might be due to a decline of levels of understanding and awareness, and identify implications for social work practice, training, multi-agency work and future research.
Abstract: In 2014, research was undertaken to examine social workers’ confidence, understanding and awareness of child sexual abuse (CSA) as it was suggested that a decline in numbers of reported incidents might be due to a decline in levels of understanding and awareness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-five first-line, middle and senior managers and two chairs of local safeguarding boards across six local authorities in England. Focus groups were conducted with fifty-four social workers. Key themes revealed a complex array of issues, ranging from the diverse forms of CSA and exploitation that social workers are required to address, the variable support and training available, and the inter-disciplinary nature of much of the work. Although social workers undertake this important work with a strong sense of commitment and concern for children, they face a number of challenges. Paradoxically, whilst their work on these cases is the source of intense scrutiny, the training, support and supervision, and role clarity required to undertake this work well are often overlooked. The aim of this paper is to discuss the research findings and to identify implications for social work practice, training, multi-agency work and future research.

Summary (2 min read)

Introduction

  • This doesn’t have to be physical contact and it can happen online’ (NSPCC, 2016).
  • It was against this backdrop that research was commissioned by the NSPCC to explore social workers’ confidence and understanding of CSA.
  • The research report is available on the NSPCC website (Martin et al., 2014) and, in this paper, their focus is on the implications arising from it.

Method

  • Ethical approval was gained from the authors’ university and the Association of Directors of Children’s Services Research Group.
  • The size and nature of these varied, with three located in the East and West Midlands, one in London, one in East Anglia and one in the North-West.
  • Each LA was provided with a summary of key findings respective to the authority, including where participants had indicated need for improvement in practice and training.
  • The purpose of undertaking focus groups and interviews was to establish how confident and self-assured social workers and managers felt in relation to working with CSA/E. Questions explored training and career pathways into their current field of work, current role and details of memorandum, post-qualifying and multidisciplinary training in the field of child safeguarding.
  • This leads to concerns as to the potential under-recording of CSA and the low prioritisation of therapeutic support that might be given to children and young people who have been groomed and sexually exploited.

The importance of skilled intervention

  • Where timely and skilled intervention exists, research suggests that it can make a positive contribution to both sexually abused children and their carers.
  • In 2002, the Department of Health published a report from findings of individual and joint inspections of English authorities carried out by eight inspectorates.
  • Working Together to Safeguard Children identified the lead role of LAs, whilst reiterating the principle that ‘safeguarding is everyone’s responsibility: for services to be effective each professional and organisation should play their full part’.
  • Central to the potential conflict between ‘investigation and prosecution’ and ‘investigation and child welfare support’ was the practice in some of the participating LAs to postpone social work or therapeutic intervention until criminal proceedings had been completed—a practice sometimes requested by the police in order to avoid the potential contamination of evidence.
  • This raises important issues as to the core purpose of social work, how the expertise of qualified social workers should best be used and the status of the profession in the multi-agency context.

Multi-agency safeguarding hubs

  • MASHs were developed to assist in multi-agency information sharing.
  • At the post-qualifying level, social workers did not necessarily have access to appropriate knowledge and training.
  • This may contribute to the evaluation report’s finding that ‘Despite enjoying high ratings for practice quality, the Frontline trainees’ rating of their own confidence in their abilities was lower than their mainstream counterparts’.

Concluding remarks

  • CSA/E amongst children and young people is a substantive issue facing contemporary social work in the UK.
  • Research addressing this issue is still an under-developed field and, where research is taking place, it is not necessarily permeating social work practice.
  • This research highlights that, although social workers undertake this important work with a strong sense of commitment and concern for children, they face a number of challenges.
  • The focus of government and Chief Social Worker interventions appear to suggest that there is something inherently problematic about social workers themselves that can be improved if they are more tightly regulated, trained outside of universities or subject to post-qualification exams.
  • The call for smaller caseloads, more time for direct practice, enhanced professional status, less paper work and reduced regulation and managerial direction merely echoes reports of the last decade.

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Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation:
Knowledge, Confidence and Training
within a Contemporary UK Social Work
Practice and Policy Context
Josephine Kwhali, Linda Martin, Geraldine Brady* and
Sarah J. Brown
Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK
*Correspondence to Dr Geraldine Brady, Reader in Sociology of Childhood and Youth,
Faculty of Health and Life Science, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1
5FB, UK. E-mail: G.Brady@coventry.ac.uk
Abstract
In 2014, research was undertaken to examine social workers’ confidence, understanding
and awareness of child sexual abuse (CSA) as it was suggested that a decline in num-
bers of reported incidents might be due to a decline in levels of understanding and
awareness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-five first-line, mid-
dle and senior managers and two chairs of local safeguarding boards across six local
authorities in England. Focus groups were conducted with fifty-four social workers. Key
themes revealed a complex array of issues, ranging from the diverse forms of CSA and
exploitation that social workers are required to address, the variable support and train-
ing available, and the inter-disciplinary nature of much of the work. Although social
workers undertake this important work with a strong sense of commitment and con-
cern for children, they face a number of challenges. Paradoxically, whilst their work on
these cases is the source of intense scrutiny, the training, support and supervision, and
role clarity required to undertake this work well are often overlooked. The aim of this
paper is to discuss the research findings and to identify implications for social work
practice, training, multi-agency work and future research.
Keywords: CSA, CSE, critical reflection, education, social work, training
Accepted: September 2016
# The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of
The British Association of Social Workers. All rights reserved.
British Journal of Social Work (2016) 46, 2208–2226
doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcw154
Advance Access Publication November 14, 2016

Introduction
In March 2015, former British Prime Minister David Cameron stated
that child sexual abuse (CSA) was a ‘national threat’ and responding to
it a national priority. CSA occurs when a child is ‘forced or persuaded
to take part in sexual activities. This doesn’t have to be physical contact
and it can happen online’ (NSPCC, 2016). The definition of child sexual
exploitation (CSE), which is a form of CSA, was recently defined by
UK’s Department for Education (Department for Education and Home
Office, 2016) as when a child or young person under the age of eighteen
is ‘persuaded, coerced or forced into sexual activity in exchange for,
amongst other things, money, drugs/alcohol, gifts, affection or status’.
Social workers in England are at the forefront of the response to CSA
and CSE (CSA/E) and have important responsibilities for safeguarding
children and invoking child protection policies.
Despite the spotlight on CSA/E, child protection registration figures
and the number of children being made subject of child protection plans
for sexual abuse was lower than it was a decade ago and significantly
lower than two decades ago (Brown et al., 2011). Questions were raised
about the reasons for this decline, particularly since it contrasted with an
increase in reported incidents of CSA/E (NSPCC, 2015) and professional
practice had been challenged following reports of failures in responding
to CSA/E allegations (e.g. Jay, 2014). NSPCC scoping work suggested
that the reduction in reported incidents might be due to professionals’
decline in levels of understanding and awareness. Rapid developments
in practice, particularly in relation to CSE, and a shift from family sup-
port to child protection (Featherstone et al., 2013) made it difficult for
professionals to keep abreast of changes.
It was against this backdrop that research was commissioned by the
NSPCC to explore social workers’ confidence and understanding of
CSA. The research report is available on the NSPCC website (Martin
et al., 2014) and, in this paper, our focus is on the implications arising
from it. After outlining the method, we discuss in turn, noting the find-
ings and implications, two of the core themes from the research findings:
practice issues in relation to social workers’ knowledge and confidence;
and effective support, supervision and training. Finally, we identify the
implications for CSA/E practice, education, training and multi-agency
work that arose from the research.
Method
Ethical approval was gained from the authors’ university and the
Association of Directors of Children’s Services (England) Research
Group. An advisory group of experienced professionals was established
Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation 2209

to guide the research. Seven of the forty-five English local authorities
(LAs) invited to participate in the study agreed, and six were able to
participate within the time frame. The size and nature of these varied,
with three located in the East and West Midlands, one in London, one
in East Anglia and one in the North-West. Four had nationally ‘low’
and two ‘medium’ rates of reported cases of CSA (see Martin et al.
(2014) for more details about the method and participating authorities).
In each LA, two focus groups were held: one with Safeguarding Teams
and one with Duty and Assessment, Child in Need and/or Looked After
teams. In addition, a team manager and middle manager with responsi-
bility for safeguarding practice, the relevant senior manager and, where
possible, the Chair of the Local Safeguarding Children’s Board (LSCB)
were interviewed. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with
twenty-five first-line, middle and senior managers and two chairs of
LSCBs; twelve focus groups with a total of fifty-four social workers were
facilitated. All were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Participants varied in terms of level of social work experience and,
where possible, diverse social and ethnic backgrounds were represented.
There were two experienced social workers on the research team, one of
whom had held Head of Children’s Services roles. Their familiarity with
the pressures and challenges experienced by front line social workers
were to prove invaluable whilst collecting data in the field, balancing the
sensitivity of encouraging staff and managers to talk about their know-
ledge and confidence (or lack of) yet recognising when practice was un-
safe and needed improvement. The focus group and interview
transcripts were analysed using framework analysis (Richie and Lewis,
2003); initial emerging themes were used to develop a thematic frame-
work that helped to illuminate similarities and differences between par-
ticipants and LAs. To ensure confidentiality, the names of participating
LAs and individuals are not identified; data extracts are attributed by
LA and focus group number (e.g. LA1, FG2). Each LA was provided
with a summary of key findings respective to the authority, including
where participants had indicated need for improvement in practice and
training.
Findings, discussion and implications for practice
This section is organised around two of the core themes that emerged
from the research: ‘Practice issues, knowledge and confidence’ and
‘Effective support, supervision and training’ (Martin et al., 2014). Each
subsection will consider the main findings without seeking to repeat the
original report, before discussing the implications for CSA/E practice.
2210 Josephine Kwhali et al.

Main findings: practice issues, knowledge and confidence
The purpose of undertaking focus groups and interviews was to establish
how confident and self-assured social workers and managers felt in rela-
tion to working with CSA/E. Questions explored training and career
pathways into their current field of work, current role and details of
memorandum, post-qualifying and multidisciplinary training in the field
of child safeguarding. We also focused on experience of working in so-
cial work with children and families generally and with specific reference
to CSA/E including the nature, range and scale of their experience.
Some participants considered themselves to have considerable experi-
ence and knowledge of CSA work, while others were less experienced
and more cautious in their assertions. Social workers’ experience of
CSA was primarily acquired through the assessment or management of
cases where sexual abuse was perpetrated by a family member or associ-
ate. Procedures and guidance were well developed in this area and there
were usually other staff members or managers whom they could turn to
for advice. Participants recognised that incidents of CSA could emerge
through the identification of other categories of harm, through working
directly with children in foster-care, adoption and leaving care services
or through the assessment of a child initially referred for family support.
Social workers in our research reinforced the need for all practitioners
to have understanding of CSA/E and to build up their expertise and
knowledge. Whilst the management of CSA/E cases was viewed as
stressful and complex, it was considered a core component of social
workers’ safeguarding responsibilities. In general, social workers con-
sidered themselves confident in discussing and managing familial CSA,
whilst also reporting that confidence was undermined by staff shortages
and high caseloads.
Participants stressed that direct work in cases of CSA needs prepar-
ation and time for reflection—‘it’s not something you just go and do’
and this space was rarely available. For example, one social worker
(LA2, FG1) indicated that insufficient time was allocated to build trust-
ing relationships with children in a family where sibling abuse had taken
place, so she visited at the end of the day to ensure her manager was un-
aware of the additional hours being spent. Fine and Teram (2013) per-
ceive that the organisational climate can be such that social workers feel
the need to respond by masking and smoothing institutional inadequa-
cies. They argue that, whilst this may be a way of supporting individual
families, acting overtly to address perceived social injustice is more
likely to lead to institutional change.
Social workers gave examples of cases being closed either because the
child or alleged abuser had been removed from the abusive situation or
as a result of more pressing referrals. This left the child and other family
Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation 2211

members vulnerable at a point when the investigating agencies with-
drew. One social worker warned ‘you can forget there’s a child in the
middle of it’ (LA5, FG2) and another said ‘it isn’t all about a Police in-
vestigation, it’s about them’ (LA2, FG2). Social workers in four author-
ities (1, 3, 4 and 5) raised specific concerns when the police were
undertaking investigations and the lack of clarity as to their own role in
supporting children and other family members. They also expressed con-
cern about potential delays in children accessing therapeutic interven-
tion. Also, ‘“stalling” for so long and telling them that they’ve done the
right thing but actually we’re going to do nothing about it for a
bit’(LA5, FG1) whilst criminal investigations were concluded potentially
made it worse for a child if left unsupported to deal with the aftermath
of sexual abuse disclosure. A social worker spoke of her distress of
working with a young girl (age not specified) who had been raped and
the trauma for the girl in undergoing medical and criminal procedures,
commenting ‘And it’s left with you to sort of hold it, it’s all left on you’
(LA3, FG1).
Less confidence was shown by research participants when cases
involved grooming, trafficking, internet abuse and other types of exploit-
ative behaviour and where multi-agency responses were required. Few
research participants had direct experience of working with trafficked or
groomed children. They consistently expressed uncertainty as to their
role in partnership working and how the social work function might best
be exercised in assessing and supporting children and young people sub-
ject to CSE. Confidence was further eroded by the allocation of cases
based on numerical capacity or availability of staff, rather than levels of
expertise or prior experience.
The uncertainty regarding the social work role was also evident in so-
cial workers’ and managers’ discussions of the Multi Agency
Safeguarding Hubs (MASH) that were incrementally developed follow-
ing the Munro review (2011) of child protection. Established to improve
information sharing and decision making between agencies when cases
of potential child exploitation were referred or identified, social workers
in one authority (LA2) knew little about the newly established MASH
team, commenting that it dealt mainly with cases of grooming and CSE.
When asked whether such children and young people were then referred
under section 47 and made subject to child protection plans, the social
workers indicated otherwise, suggesting that such cases were matters for
the police.
Management participants, including team managers and those working
at a strategic level, expressed some uncertainty about the interrelation-
ship between MASH and child protection services. They felt there was a
lack of clarity between the MASH and the recording and management
of CSE cases and those of familial abuse managed within children’s so-
cial work. This leads to concerns as to the potential under-recording of
2212 Josephine Kwhali et al.

Citations
More filters
01 Feb 2018
TL;DR: The Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse (IICSA) as discussed by the authors investigated whether public bodies and other non-state institutions have taken seriously their responsibility to protect children from sexual abuse in England and Wales, and to make meaningful recommendations for change, to help ensure that children now and in the future are better protected against sexual abuse.
Abstract: The aim of the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse (IICSA or ‘the Inquiry’) is to investigate whether public bodies and other non-state institutions have taken seriously their responsibility to protect children from sexual abuse in England and Wales, and to make meaningful recommendations for change, to help ensure that children now and in the future are better protected from sexual abuse. As defined in current government policy in England and Wales, child sexual abuse involves forcing or enticing a child or young person under the age of 18 to take part in sexual activities. It includes contact and non-contact abuse, child sexual exploitation (CSE) and grooming a child in preparation for abuse (HM Government, 2015b). However, definitions and understandings of what counts as child sexual abuse have been subject to substantial change over time. As part of its work, the Inquiry commissioned this rapid evidence assessment (REA) to understand what the social and political discourses have been about child sexual abuse, and the ways in which these discourses may have influenced responses to child sexual abuse by institutions. These questions have cross-cutting relevance for the work of the Inquiry. The overarching aim of this REA was to summarise the existing evidence base about social and political discourses concerning child sexual abuse in England and Wales from the 1940s to 2017 and identify the ways in which those discourses may have influenced institutional responses to such abuse.

21 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the results obtained in a qualitative study based on the experiences of professionals from two Chilean projects addressing Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) are presented.
Abstract: This article presents the results obtained in a qualitative study based on the experiences of professionals from two Chilean projects addressing Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC). M...

6 citations

Dissertation
01 Jan 2016
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the individual perspectives of children and young people, their carers and practitioners involved in the intervention, which is based primarily on a psychodynamic model of recovery informed by trauma, attachment and resilience theories.
Abstract: The importance of the “therapeutic relationship” in the process of therapeutic change has long been recognised in psychotherapy literature and in recent years has also been evidenced in empirical research. Using a social constructionist framework, this study considers relationships formed in a therapeutic intervention for children and young people affected by child sexual abuse. The intervention is based primarily on a psychodynamic model of recovery informed by trauma, attachment and resilience theories. Based on interviews with six children and young people, seven carers and thirteen practitioners, the thesis explores the individual perspectives of children and young people, their carers and practitioners involved in the intervention. In addition, data collected during the evaluation of the intervention from 85 completed Carer Feedback Questionnaires and 148 responses on the Therapeutic Alliance Scale for Children (Shirk and Saiz, 1992) is presented. Perceptions of change within the therapeutic relationship are explored, including participants’ recollections of conversations and events. The thesis examines how children, young people and carers made connections with practitioners, agreed therapeutic goals and activities within the relationship and how they transferred activities and learning beyond the therapy into their everyday spaces. Major themes discussed are confidentiality, trust, safety, choice, power, non-judgemental attitudes and hope for the future. An unanticipated but connected theme links maternal responses to social constructions of “bad” mothers, and highlights the importance for parents of feelings of safety and trust in the practitioner-parent relationship following child sexual abuse. The findings demonstrate the importance for service users of sharing a relational space, and provide insight into the relational processes in therapeutic work with young people and their parents.

6 citations

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28 citations


"Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Although its purpose is clearly stated by the UK Government (Department for Education and Skills, 2006), and standards for such training were outlined over ten years ago (Shardlow et al. 2004), few social workers involved in this research recalled experiencing inter-agency training and when they did it was usually provided by the police, reinforcing the police’s perceived lead role in safeguarding children....

    [...]

  • ...…clearly stated by the UK Government (Department for Education and Skills, 2006), and standards for such training were outlined over ten years ago (Shardlow et al. 2004), few social workers involved in this research recalled experiencing inter-agency training and when they did it was usually…...

    [...]

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a history of inter-agency training in England is described, and it is shown that despite limited attention being paid to its evaluation, the role of training has expanded in terms of both content and target audience, raising questions about the evidence base upon which investment in inter-agencies training is founded.
Abstract: Since the 1970s, interagency training has been considered crucial for developing effective collaborative practice, initially in relation to child protection, and latterly, to safeguarding children's welfare. Charting the history of interagency training in England, this paper aims to demonstrate how, despite limited attention being paid to its evaluation, the role of training has expanded in terms of both content and target audience. This raises questions about the evidence base upon which investment in interagency training is founded. Drawing on the limited literature and experiences of interagency trainers, the authors question whether this investment is an act of faith or reason. They conclude that a belief in the value of training different disciplines together persists, despite little being known about the way in which interagency training improves practice.

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Abstract: The creation of effective Local Safeguarding Children Boards in England and Wales is contingent upon the development of new interprofessional partnerships amongst practitioners, managers and strategic planners. Inter-agency training will have a role to play in facilitating partnership development throughout an increasingly complex inter-agency system. The following article reviews the recent history of inter-agency training and the increasing clarity regarding its distinctive purpose. It highlights three theoretical frameworks that have been influential in the development of ideas about the most appropriate focus and process when working across organisational and professional boundaries. Finally, attention is drawn to an emerging consensus as to the core dimensions of effectiveness in interprofessional working relationships. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

24 citations


"Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation..." refers background in this paper

  • ...as it has been accepted as an effective vehicle for breaking down the barriers that transcend good practice (Glennie, 2007)....

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  • ...Problems with inter- agency working are well-documented but its importance has risen over the last two decades as it has been accepted as an effective vehicle for breaking down the barriers that transcend good practice (Glennie, 2007)....

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01 Jan 2016

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"Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation..." refers background in this paper

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  • ...The evaluation report (Maxwell et al. 2016) suggests that the Frontline participants are “significantly younger, more likely to have parents who were graduates and are more likely to have attended independent schools than those on traditional Masters” courses ....

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  • ...The evaluation report (Maxwell et al. 2016) suggests that the Frontline participants are “significantly younger, more likely to have parents who were graduates and are more likely to have attended independent schools than those on traditional Masters” courses ....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In response to endemic recruitment and retention problems within social work, the West London Social Work Alliance devised an ambitious initiative across eight local authorities creating a career pathway for child and family social workers through to front line team manager level.
Abstract: In response to endemic recruitment and retention problems within social work, the West London Social Work Alliance devised an ambitious initiative across eight local authorities creating a career pathway for child and family social workers through to front line team manager level. We examine the impact and effectiveness of two programmes and reveal a tendency for ‘role slumping’, whereby tasks and decision making are escalated inappropriately to higher levels. The resultant lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities can also have a more pernicious impact on the confidence and competence of those who should be performing these duties. Evidence showed these programmes increased the competence and confidence of delegates, confirmed by their line managers, but delegates also reported high job satisfaction, motivation and employer trust. The design of the training enabled improvements to be more effectively cascaded not just within one authority, but across all. Our evaluation reveals an array of tangible benefits for individuals and employers, but raises concern about the potential longevity of these benefits. The programme needed ongoing engagement and communication with managers and those new to the organisation concerning the programmes' content and there was no concurrent attention towards organisational push factors, which also contribute to staff turnover.

22 citations


"Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…able to enter interprofessional negotiations on an equal footing but ‘role slumping’ (the practice of higher level managers intervening in decisions that should be made at practitioner level) (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Searle and Patent, 2013) potentially undermines their ability to do this effectively....

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  • ...12 managers intervening in decisions that should be made at practitioner level) (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Searle and Patent, 2013) potentially undermines their ability to do this effectively....

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