Choice as time allocation.
01 Nov 1969-Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (J Exp Anal Behav)-Vol. 12, Iss: 6, pp 861-874
TL;DR: The present results, together with related research, suggest that the ratio of time spent in two activities equals the ratios of the "values" of the activities.
Abstract: When pigeons' standing on one or the other side of a chamber was reinforced on two concurrent variable-interval schedules, the ratio of time spent on the left to time spent on the right was directly proportional to the ratio of reinforcements produced by standing on the left to reinforcements produced by standing on the right. The constant of proportionality was less than unity for all pigeons, indicating a bias toward the right side of the chamber. The biased matching relation obtained here is comparable to the matching relation obtained with concurrent reinforcement of key pecks. The present results, together with related research, suggest that the ratio of time spent in two activities equals the ratio of the "values" of the activities. The value of an activity is the product of several parameters, such as rate and amount of reinforcement, contingent on that activity.
Citations
More filters
[...]
TL;DR: Experiments on single, multiple, and concurrent schedules of reinforcement find various correlations between the rate of responding and the rate or magnitude of reinforcement, which can be accounted for by a coherent system of equations.
Abstract: Experiments on single, multiple, and concurrent schedules of reinforcement find various correlations between the rate of responding and the rate or magnitude of reinforcement. For concurrent schedules (i.e., simultaneous choice procedures), there is matching between the relative frequencies of responding and reinforcement; for multiple schedules (i.e., successive discrimination procedures), there are contrast effects between responding in each component and reinforcement in the others; and for single schedules, there are a host of increasing monotonic relations between the rate of responding and the rate of reinforcement. All these results, plus several others, can be accounted for by a coherent system of equations, the most general of which states that the absolute rate of any response is proportional to its associated relative reinforcement.
2,690Â citations
2,072Â citations
TL;DR: The generalized matching law predicts that bias should take this form (adding a constant proportion of responding to the favored alternative) and data from a variety of experiments indicate that it generally does.
Abstract: Data on choice generally conform closely to an equation of the form: log(B1/B2)=a log(r1/r2+log k, where B1 and B2 are the frequencies of responding at Alternatives 1 and 2, r1 and r2 are the obtained reinforcement from Alternatives 1 and 2, and a and k are empirical constants. When a and k equal one, this equation is equivalent to the matching relation: B1/B2=r1/r2. Two types of deviation from matching can occur with this formulation: a and k not equal to one. In some experiments, a systematically falls short of one. This deviation is undermatching. The reasons for undermatching are obscure at present. Some evidence suggests, however, that factors favoring discrimination also favor matching. Matching (a=1) may represent the norm in choice when discrimination is maximal. When k differs from one, its magnitude indicates the degree of bias in choice. The generalized matching law predicts that bias should take this form (adding a constant proportion of responding to the favored alternative). Data from a variety of experiments indicate that it generally does.
1,400Â citations
Cites background from "Choice as time allocation."
...Does bias take this form? Checking data against Equation 3 appears to be the best way to find out (Baum and Rachlin, 1969; Staddon, 1968)....
[...]
TL;DR: The preference for the large delayed alternative with long durations of T parallels everyday instances of advance commitment to a given course of action and may be seen as a prototype for self-control.
Abstract: When offered a choice (Choice Y) between a small immediate reward (2-sec exposure to grain) and a large reward (4-sec exposure to grain) delayed by 4 sec, pigeons invariably preferred the small, immediate reward. However, when offered a choice (Choice X) between a delay of T seconds followed by Choice Y and a delay of T seconds followed by restriction to the large delayed reward only, the pigeon's choice depended on T. When T was small, the pigeons chose the alternative leading to Choice Y (and then chose the small, immediate reward). When T was large, the pigeons chose the alternative leading to the large delayed reward only. The reversal of preference as T increases is predicted by several recent models for choice between various amounts and delays of reward. The preference for the large delayed alternative with long durations of T parallels everyday instances of advance commitment to a given course of action. Such commitment may be seen as a prototype for self-control.
1,182Â citations
Cites background from "Choice as time allocation."
...choice among various delays and amounts of reinforcement (Catania, 1963; Logan, 1965; Renner, 1967; Baum and Rachlin, 1969; Fantino, 1969; Herrnstein, 1970)....
[...]
References
More filters
TL;DR: The present experiment is a study of strength of response of pigeons on a concurrent schedule under which they peck at either of two response-keys and investigates output as a function of frequency of reinforcement.
Abstract: A previous paper (Herrnstein, 1958) reported how pigeons behave on a concurrent schedule under which they peck at either of two response-keys The significant finding of this investigation was that the relative frequency of responding to each of the keys may be controlled within narrow limits by adjustments in an independent variable In brief, the requirement for reinforcement in this procedure is the emission of a minimum number of pecks to each of the keys The pigeon receives food when it completes the requirement on both keys The frequency of responding to each key was a close approximation to the minimum requirement The present experiment explores the relative frequency of responding further In the earlier study it was shown that the output of behavior to each of two keys may be controlled by specific requirements of outputs Now we are investigating output as a function of frequency of reinforcement The earlier experiment may be considered a study of differential reinforcement; the present one, a study of strength of response Both experiments are attempts to elucidate the properties of rdlative frequency of responding as a dependent variable
2,220Â citations
1,062Â citations
TL;DR: The relative frequency of responding at each key was shown to match the relative immediacy of reinforcement, immediacy defined as the reciprocal of the delay of reinforcement.
Abstract: Pigeons were trained to peck either of two response keys for food reinforcement on equated aperiodic schedules. The distribution of responding at the two keys was studied as reinforcement was delayed for various durations. The relative frequency of responding at each key was shown to match the relative immediacy of reinforcement, immediacy defined as the reciprocal of the delay of reinforcement.
530Â citations
376Â citations
TL;DR: When a pigeon's pecking on a single key was reinforced by a variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the rate of pecking was insensitive to changes in the duration of reinforcement from 3 to 6 sec.
Abstract: When a pigeon's pecking on a single key was reinforced by a variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the rate of pecking was insensitive to changes in the duration of reinforcement from 3 to 6 sec. When, however, the pigeon's pecking on each of two keys was concurrently reinforced by two independent VI schedules, one for each key, the rate of pecking was directly proportional to the duration of reinforcement.
315Â citations