Clinical chemistry of companion avian species: a review.
TL;DR: Normal avian urine and appropriate use of urinalysis, an integral part of laboratory diagnosis in mammalian species that frequently is omitted from avian diagnostic protocols, is discussed.
Abstract: Birds have evolved alternate physiologic strategies to contend with dehydration, starvation, malnutrition, and reproduction. Basic anatomic and functional differences between birds and mammals impact clinical chemistry values and their evaluation. Interpretation of the results of standard biochemical analyses, including BUN, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, gamma glutamyltransferase, bilirubin, ammonia, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, bile acids, glucose, albumin, globulins, calcium, phosphorus, prealbumin (transthyretin), fibrinogen, iron, and ferritin, is reviewed and discussed in relation to these physiological differences. The use and interpretation of alternative analytes appropriate for avian species, such as uric acid, biliverdin, glutamate dehydrogenase, and galactose clearance, also are reviewed. Normal avian urine and appropriate use of urinalysis, an integral part of laboratory diagnosis in mammalian species that frequently is omitted from avian diagnostic protocols, is discussed.
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01 Jan 2008
TL;DR: The observed changes associated with molting were less significant than initially expected, and are not likely to be strong enough to mislead the practitioner.
Abstract: Plasma protein electrophoresis is now commonly recognized to be a very reliable diagnostic tool in avian medicine. However, the influence of circannual phenomena such as molt on protein electrophoregrams is poorly documented. Yet, the molt is a period of heavy hormonal and metabolic change in birds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of molt on total protein concentration and electrophoresis patterns in birds. Nineteen bar headed geese (Anser indicus) were blood sampled from mid May to mid August, at 15 day intervals. At the same time, the birds’ molting stage was checked. Total protein concentrations were measured and plasma agarose gel electrophoresis were performed on these samples. The geese were chosen as a model, because these birds molt over a very short period. The total protein concentration, albumin, alpha-2, beta and gamma fractions were at their minimum values during molt, whereas the prealbumin and alpha-1 fractions rose to their maximum levels. This study provides baseline information relevant to changes occurring in avian proteinograms throughout the molt. The increase in the prealbumin and alpha-1 fractions may be related to an increase in plasma thyroid hormones during molt. The decrease observed in albumin, alpha-2, beta and gamma fractions may be related to a protein and energy shift, directed towards feather growth, as well as to an expansion of the circulatory system located around the feather follicles. From a clinical point of view, the observed changes associated with molting were less significant than initially expected, and are not likely to be strong enough to mislead the practitioner.
245 citations
TL;DR: These guidelines are recommendations for determination and interpretation of Allowable total error (TEa) for commonly measured biochemical analytes in cats, dogs, and horses for equipment commonly used in veterinary diagnostic medicine.
Abstract: As all laboratory equipment ages and contains components that may degrade with time, initial and periodically scheduled performance assessment is required to verify accurate and precise results over the life of the instrument. As veterinary patients may present to general practitioners and then to referral hospitals (both of which may each perform in-clinic laboratory analyses using different instruments), and given that general practitioners may send samples to reference laboratories, there is a need for comparability of results across instruments and methods. Allowable total error (TEa ) is a simple comparative quality concept used to define acceptable analytical performance. These guidelines are recommendations for determination and interpretation of TEa for commonly measured biochemical analytes in cats, dogs, and horses for equipment commonly used in veterinary diagnostic medicine. TEa values recommended herein are aimed at all veterinary settings, both private in-clinic laboratories using point-of-care analyzers and larger reference laboratories using more complex equipment. They represent the largest TEa possible without generating laboratory variation that would impact clinical decision making. TEa can be used for (1) assessment of an individual instrument's analytical performance, which is of benefit if one uses this information during instrument selection or assessment of in-clinic instrument performance, (2) Quality Control validation, and (3) as a measure of agreement or comparability of results from different laboratories (eg, between the in-clinic analyzer and the reference laboratory). These guidelines define a straightforward approach to assessment of instrument analytical performance.
176 citations
Aarhus University1, Carleton University2, McGill University3, Norwegian Polar Institute4, Norwegian University of Science and Technology5, University Centre in Svalbard6, University of Michigan7, Alberta Environment8, University of Oslo9, University of Connecticut10, University of Copenhagen11, Acadia University12, United States Geological Survey13, Swedish Museum of Natural History14, Royal Dutch Shell15, National Institute of Standards and Technology16, Environment Agency17, Environment Canada18, United States Fish and Wildlife Service19, University of Windsor20, Syngenta21, Oregon State University22, Fisheries and Oceans Canada23, Norwegian University of Life Sciences24, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada25, American Museum of Natural History26, National Veterinary Institute27, St. John's University28, University of Manitoba29, Leibniz Association30
TL;DR: This assessment made use of risk quotient calculations to summarize the cumulative effects of different OHC classes and mercury for which critical body burdens can be estimated for wildlife across the Arctic.
158 citations
Cites background from "Clinical chemistry of companion avi..."
...Since the last AMAP reports (Letcher et al., 2010; Dietz et al., 2013a), three new studies on BCCPs in Arctic avian wildlife, including top avian predators such as great skua, northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), white-tailed eagle, and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), have focused on OHCs in the marine environment of the North Atlantic (Sonne et al., 2010c, 2012b, 2013d)....
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...Analyzing blood plasma clinical-chemical parameters (BCCPs) gives a holistic evaluation of the biochemical, metabolic, and endocrine status of the vertebrate organism....
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...PCBs, DDTs, chlordanes, HCB, HCHs, Mirex and PBDEs, and 19 BCCPs were sought in 114 adult great skuas sampled during summer 2009 in North Atlantic colonies at Bjørnøya, Iceland and the Shetland Islands....
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...Most of the 19 BCCPs followed the pattern of colony differences found for the OHCs with Bjørnøya having the greatest concentrations of BCCPs....
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...BCCPs are usually used as biomarkers of health and function of different organ systems in mammals and birds (Sonne, 2010; Sonne et al., 2012b)....
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TL;DR: The diversity of ways to measure immune function for ecologists is outlined, and some details on the limitations in interpretation of results are provided, to encourage thinking about immune function as a hierarchical defence model.
Abstract: Summary
1. Immune defence is an incredibly complicated system, but to understand how it functions in an ecological context is challenging. Our focus is to outline the diversity of ways to measure immune function for ecologists, and to provide some details on the limitations in interpretation of results.
2. There are two broad questions that ecological immunologists have to deal with. The first is what assays are appropriate for the research question of interest? Some researchers assume the biological relevance of an immune assay without investigation or a complete understanding of the immune response. Therefore, the second question is, what parasite challenge does one choose, and does a measurement of immune function reflect the response of the host towards that parasite? There are many assumptions, caveats, and pitfalls facing ecological immunologists, and investigating the relationships between immune assays and whole organismal defence will help us to understand variations in immune responses.
3. We provide an extensive listing of immune function measures, presenting examples from both the vertebrate and invertebrate literature, and wherever possible from non-model organisms. We also outline how these responses are part of an integrated immune defence and encourage thinking about immune function as a hierarchical defence model. We describe how immune responses interact with one another, identify concerns regarding when to measure an immune response, and describe general problems faced when trying to collect a measure of immune function in wild organisms.
4. Extrinsic factors influence immune measurements and the importance of parasites is often overlooked. We give several examples of how parasites interact with organism’s immune systems, suggest greater inclusion of parasites into ecological immunology experiments, describe how micro-organisms may interact symbiotically with their host’s immune system, and advocate the inclusion of tolerance and resistance in ecological immunological thinking.
147 citations
TL;DR: The lowest albumin-to-globulin ratio in broilers fed on TML suggests a higher immune response, probably due to the prebiotic effects of chitin, and the FCR of the TML group was more favourable than that of the SBM group.
Abstract: The aim of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of replacing soybean meal (SBM) with Tenebrio molitor larvae (TML) meal in broiler diets A total of 80 30-d-old male Shaver brown broilers were divided into two groups fed on two isoproteic and isoenergetic diets differing for protein source (SBM vs TML) Up to 62 d of age, body weight and feed intake were recorded weekly and body weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and European efficiency factor (EEF) were calculated At 62 d, blood samples were collected from 16 birds/group for evaluation of blood profiles Feed intake was not different between groups considering the entire period of the trial The FCR was more favourable in the TML than SBM group from 46 d of age and in the entire period of the trial (413 vs 362) The PER was higher in the SBM than in the TML group (192 vs 137) while the EEF was higher in broilers fed on the TML diet (1326 vs 1562) Albumin-to-globulin ratio was higher in broilers fed on SBM than in the other group (044 vs 030) aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were higher in TML than SBM (1951 vs 1786 U/l and 8207 vs 4671 U/l, respectively) Uric acid was higher in broilers fed on SBM than TML (540 vs 416 mg/dl) TML did not affect feed intake and growth rate of broilers from 30 to 62 d of age when compared to an isoproteic and isoenergetic SBM diet, but FCR of the TML group was more favourable than that of the SBM group The lowest albumin-to-globulin ratio in broilers fed on TML suggests a higher immune response, probably due to the prebiotic effects of chitin
141 citations
Cites background from "Clinical chemistry of companion avi..."
...It is known that uric acid is the major avian nitrogenous waste product and an important antioxidative agent (Harr, 2002; Jurani et al., 2004), and there is a direct relationship between the amount of ingested protein and the serum uric acid concentrations (Szabo et al., 2005)....
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References
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01 Jan 1997
TL;DR: This chapter begins with discussing how blood samples of birds can be collected in the most efficient way and elaborates the biochemistry of plasma proteins, renal function, and hepatobiliary disease in birds.
Abstract: This chapter presents basic concepts related to avian clinical biochemistry. Avian medicine and surgery is recognized as an official specialty in veterinary medicine in three continents: Europe, Australia, and North America. The increasing demand for veterinary care for individual birds with a high sentimental or economical value and efforts to conserve endangered species facilitated this awareness. The introduction of micromethods in clinical laboratories and the public demand for veterinary care for individual birds have removed many obstacles of this field. This chapter begins with discussing how blood samples of birds can be collected in the most efficient way. The chapter then discusses starvation, flight, and postprandial effects. The chapter also elaborates the biochemistry of plasma proteins, renal function, and hepatobiliary disease in birds. The chapter emphasizes that all efforts should be made to obtain a blood sample before any treatment is given. Treatments administered before samples are collected may severely affect plasma chemical values, which may jeopardize a correct diagnosis at a later stage. The time interval between restraint and blood sampling should be kept to a minimum to prevent stress-associated changes in clinical chemistry parameters. Blood samples should be obtained before an extensive clinical examination is performed to avoid iatrogenic changes in the samples.
1,260 citations
01 Jan 1986
TL;DR: The right ovary and oviduct are present in embryonic stages of all birds, but the distribution of primordial germ cells to the ovaries of the chicken becomes asymmetrical by day 4 of incubation, and by day 10 regression of the right ovidUCT begins.
Abstract: The right ovary and oviduct are present in embryonic stages of all birds, but the distribution of primordial germ cells to the ovaries of the chicken becomes asymmetrical by day 4 of incubation, and by day 10 regression of the right oviduct begins. The reproductive system of birds (Galliformes) consists of a single left ovary and its oviduct, although on occasion a functional right ovary and oviduct may be present. Among the falconiformes and in the brown kiwi, both left and right gonads and associated oviducts are commonly functional, although the ovaries may be asymmetrical in size; in sparrows and pigeons, about 5% of specimens have two developed ovaries (see Romanoff and Romanoff, 1949; Kinsky, 1971).
454 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1992
TL;DR: Evaluation of Hemostasis: Coagulation and Platelet Disorders, Evaluation of Immune-Mediated Disease and Hyperglobulinemia, and Evaluation of the Hepatobiliary System and Skeletal Muscle and Lipid Disorders.
Abstract: Part I: General Discussions. Laboratory Medicine Testing: Specimen Interferences and Clinical Enzymology. Hematopoiesis and Evaluation of the Bone Marrow. Evaluation of Erythrocytic Disorders. Evaluation of Leukocytic Disorders. Evaluation of Hemostasis: Coagulation and Platelet Disorders. Evaluation of Immune-Mediated Disease and Hyperglobulinemia. Evaluation of the Hepatobiliary System and Skeletal Muscle and Lipid Disorders. Evaluation of Exocrine Pancreatic, Intestinal Tract, And Glucose Disorders. Evaluation of Endocrine Function. Assessment of Renal Function, Urinalysis, And Water Balance. Electrolyte and Acid-Base Homeostasis and Disorders. Examination of Cerebrospinal Fluid. Evaluation of Effusions. Examination of Synovial Fluid. The Microscopic Examination of Tissue Specimens Obtained By Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy. Part II: Case Histories. Part III: Algorithms. Part IV: Appendix: Normal Values and Conversion Tables. Index.
421 citations
01 Jan 2015
TL;DR: This chapter will not attempt to describe the many species variations in detail but will instead describe differences between birds and mammals.
Abstract: The digestive tract is not only important for nutrient digestion and absorption, but it is the largest immunological organ in the body protecting against exogenous pathogens. The digestive system has adaptations designed to facilitate flight. The length of the intestinal tract is shorter in birds relative to mammals. Also, birds lack teeth and heavy jaw muscles, which have been replaced with a lightweight bill or beak. Food particles are swallowed whole and then reduced in size by the ventriculus or gizzard located within the body cavity. This chapter will not attempt to describe the many species variations in detail but will instead describe differences between birds and mammals. The reader is referred to the excellent reviews by McLelland (1975, 1979) for specific information on various species.
276 citations
TL;DR: It is found that hummingbird intestine has the highest active glucose transport rate and lowest passive glucose permeability reported for any vertebrate, and a new method for measuring crop-emptying times is presented.
Abstract: Hummingbirds are among the smallest endothermic vertebrates. Because they forage by energetically costly hovering, and because weight-specific basal metabolic rates increase with decreasing body size, their basal and active metabolic rates are among the highest recorded. Hummingbirds fuel these metabolic requirements mainly with highly concentrated sugar in nectar, which they extract rapidly and efficiently1,2 by an unknown mechanism. It is especially puzzling that, despite their high energy requirements, hummingbirds spend only ∼20% of their waking hours feeding, but 75% perched and apparently doing nothing3,4. Here we report the first measurement of nutrient absorption by hummingbird intestine and present a new method for measuring crop-emptying times. We find that hummingbird intestine has the highest active glucose transport rate and lowest passive glucose permeability reported for any vertebrate. Crop-emptying time may limit feeding-bout frequency and could largely account for the time spent perched.
230 citations