Cocoa production in West Africa, a review and analysis of recent developments
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the present condition of cocoa growing in West Africa where some six million ha are planted with cocoa which provide about 70 percent of the total world production.
Abstract: This paper reviews the present condition of cocoa growing in West Africa where some six million ha are planted with cocoa which provide about 70 percent of the total world production. Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana are the largest producers, followed by Nigeria and Cameroon. In the beginning of the 21st century the cocoa production increased from about 2,000,000 tons to about 3,000,000 tons in 2010 and subsequent years. While in this period expansion of the cocoa area (at the expense of forest land) contributed to increased production, nowadays more cocoa has to come from higher yield per ha which is very low at present. This paper highlights at first cocoa growing in each of the cocoa producing countries and then deals with the common constraints and options to higher yields, especially those in Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana. The major causes of low yield are a high incidence of pests and diseases, the old age of cocoa farms and lack of soil nutrients. Concerns about declining output due to aging and diseased trees have urged the government of Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana to launch large rehabilitation and replanting schemes which provide farmers with improved planting materials, plant protection chemicals and fertilizers. As owners of small farms do not earn enough income from their cocoa to purchase external inputs, the traditional mixed planting of cocoa and forest and fruit trees and some oil palms is discussed as an alternative to a high input approach. This low input low output system is sustainable but not the way forward to higher yields. It is thought that in the short run higher cocoa prices and improved management including pest and disease control and to a certain extent fertilizer use offer scope for a larger cocoa output. In the more distant future the predicted climatic change and increased land use for food production will reduce the size of the cocoa area and affect the leading position of West Africa on the world cocoa market. This review shows that at present the conditions for sustainable production are not met and concludes that important structural changes in the cocoa sector are needed to reach this goal. These changes concern the economic viability of cocoa on small farms, extensive land use and the ecological impact of the current cocoa growing practice. The implementation of these changes requires area specific programs with as their common goal increased economic and environmentally sustainable cocoa production on less land.
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TL;DR: The biotechnological approaches implemented for the management and exploitation of cocoa by-product, related topics on cocoa production and residual biomass generation, sustainability and valorization of cocoa chain are addressed and discussed.
103 citations
TL;DR: Fermentation of cocoa pulp-bean mass initiates destruction of the subcellular seed structure, which provides the necessary colour and flavour precursor molecules for later roasting of the cured cocoa beans, the first step of the chocolate-making.
Abstract: Cured cocoa beans are obtained through a post-harvest, batchwise process of fermentation and drying carried out on farms in the equatorial zone. Fermentation of cocoa pulp-bean mass is performed mainly in heaps or boxes. It is made possible by a succession of yeast, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) activities. Yeasts ferment the glucose of the cocoa pulp into ethanol, perform pectinolysis and produce flavour compounds, such as (higher) alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids and esters. LAB ferment the glucose, fructose and citric acid of the cocoa pulp into lactic acid, acetic acid, mannitol and pyruvate, generate a microbiologically stable fermentation environment, provide lactate as carbon source for the indispensable growth of AAB, and contribute to the cocoa and chocolate flavours by the production of sugar alcohols, organic acids, (higher) alcohols and aldehydes. AAB oxidize the ethanol into acetic acid, which penetrates into the bean cotyledons to prevent seed germination. Destruction of the subcellular seed structure in turn initiates enzymatic and non-enzymatic conversions inside the cocoa beans, which provides the necessary colour and flavour precursor molecules (hydrophilic peptides, hydrophobic amino acids and reducing sugars) for later roasting of the cured cocoa beans, the first step of the chocolate-making.
80 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compile current knowledge on nutrient cycling in cocoa production systems, nutrient requirements of cocoa, and yield response to fertilizer application in relation to factors such as management, climatic, and soil conditions.
Abstract: Cocoa is an important global commodity. It is mostly grown on small farms by millions of cocoa farmers who depend on the crop for their livelihood. Although potential yields exceed 6000 kg/ha, average farm yields are often around 400 kg/ha. Among the production constraints met by farmers is nutrient limitation. In this review, we compile current knowledge on nutrient cycling in cocoa production systems, nutrient requirements of cocoa, and yield response to fertilizer application in relation to factors such as management, climatic, and soil conditions. Large amounts of nutrients are cycled within cocoa systems, mostly through 5–10 t/ha/yr litter fall. Still, harvesting and small nutrient losses such as leaching lead to nutrient exports causing gradual soil nutrient depletion. Exact nutrient requirements of cocoa are unknown. Leaf and soil test interpretation to identify additional nutrient needs remain ambiguous. Recommended nutrient application rates vary more than 10-fold. In several trials fertilizer application more than doubled cocoa productivity; in other cases response is minimal. Differences in response between regions, fields and even trees have yet to be explained. Interactions with agroecology and management (especially shade) are poorly understood. Without this fundamental knowledge, farm level recommendations have a weak scientific base. Different types of research are recommended to complement current knowledge. Existing data and trials can be exploited through additional analysis and more detailed measurements. Cocoa farms are highly diverse and on-farm trials offer opportunities for understanding variability in production and fertilizer response. Finally, multifactorial shade–fertilizer response trials will be essential to address some of the fundamental knowledge gaps.
79 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that cocoa could potentially become an alternative in most of coffee vulnerable areas, and transforming agroforestry systems by changing tree species composition may be the best approach to adapt most of the coffee and cocoa production areas.
Abstract: Climate change threatens coffee production and the livelihoods of thousands of families in Mesoamerica that depend on it. Replacing coffee with cocoa and integrating trees in combined agroforestry systems to ameliorate abiotic stress are among the proposed alternatives to overcome this challenge. These two alternatives do not consider the vulnerability of cocoa and tree species commonly used in agroforestry plantations to future climate conditions. We assessed the suitability of these alternatives by identifying the potential changes in the distribution of coffee, cocoa and the 100 most common agroforestry trees found in Mesoamerica. Here we show that cocoa could potentially become an alternative in most of coffee vulnerable areas. Agroforestry with currently preferred tree species is highly vulnerable to future climate change. Transforming agroforestry systems by changing tree species composition may be the best approach to adapt most of the coffee and cocoa production areas. Our results stress the urgency for land use planning considering climate change effects and to assess new combinations of agroforestry species in coffee and cocoa plantations in Mesoamerica.
65 citations
TL;DR: A meta-analysis of 52 articles that directly compared cocoa agroforestry systems and monocultures using an inductive, multi-dimensional approach was presented in this article.
Abstract: Scientific knowledge, societal debates, and industry commitments around sustainable cocoa are increasing Cocoa agroforestry systems are supposed to improve the sustainability of cocoa production However, their combined agronomic, ecological, and socio-economic performance compared to monocultures is still largely unknown Here we present a meta-analysis of 52 articles that directly compared cocoa agroforestry systems and monocultures Using an inductive, multi-dimensional approach, we analyzed the differences in cocoa and total system yield, economic performance, soil chemical and physical properties, incidence of pests and diseases, potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and biodiversity conservation Cocoa agroforestry systems outcompeted monocultures in most indicators Cocoa yields in agroforestry systems were 25% lower than in monocultures, but total system yields were about ten times higher, contributing to food security and diversified incomes This finding was supported by a similar profitability of both production systems Cocoa agroforestry contributed to climate change mitigation by storing 25 times more carbon and to adaptation by lowering mean temperatures and buffering temperature extremes We found no significant differences in relation to the main soil parameters The effect of the type of production system on disease incidence depended on the fungal species The few available studies comparing biodiversity showed a higher biodiversity in cocoa agroforestry systems Increased and specific knowledge on local tree selections and local socio-economic and environmental conditions, as well as building and enabling alternative markets for agroforestry products, could contribute to further adoption and sustainability of cocoa agroforestry systems
62 citations
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TL;DR: Field results suggest a high potential for significantly increasing crop yields through increased application of seed-fertilizer technologies in the Guinean rain forest, and addressing the low productivity of agriculture should be one of the principal objectives of REDD climate mitigation programs.
Abstract: The Guinean rain forest (GRF) of West Africa, identified over 20 years ago as a global biodiversity hotspot, had reduced to 113,000 km2 at the start of the new millennium which was 18% of its original area. The principal driver of this environmental change has been the expansion of extensive smallholder agriculture. From 1988 to 2007, the area harvested in the GRF by smallholders of cocoa, cassava, and oil palm increased by 68,000 km2. Field results suggest a high potential for significantly increasing crop yields through increased application of seed-fertilizer technologies. Analyzing land-use change scenarios, it was estimated that had intensified cocoa technology, already developed in the 1960s, been pursued in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon that over 21,000 km2 of deforestation and forest degradation could have been avoided along with the emission of nearly 1.4 billion t of CO2. Addressing the low productivity of agriculture in the GRF should be one of the principal objectives of REDD climate mitigation programs.
253 citations
TL;DR: There is an urgent need to rationalize and optimize arrangement of the various components in cacao agroforest and develop shade-tolerant and disease-resistant cacao varieties, and integrate small-stock production into the system.
Abstract: The cultural features, management practice, environmental sustainability, and economic profitability of smallholder cacao (Theobroma cacao)production in West and Central Africa are reviewed. The aim is tohighlight factors affecting the cacao production and marketing sectorand to propose appropriate strategies to ensure sustainable and profitable cacao production in the region. The cacao cultivation system causes minimum damage to soil resources. In terms of carbon sequestration and below- and above-ground bio-diversity, the cacao agroforest is superior to the alternative food crop production land use. The food crop production system is based on the practice of slash-and-burn farming, which, due to population pressure and reduced fallow cycle, is no longer sustainable. Economic profitability analysis of this system in Cameroon showed that, at current prices, even with no value assigned to the tree species, the sector could still be profitable. Based on the current review and our knowledge of West and Central Africa, there is an urgent need to: (a) rationalize and optimize arrangement of the various components in cacao agroforest, (b) domesticate high value and shade tolerant indigenous species such as Gnetum africanum and integrate into the system in order to enhance the system's diversity and profitability, (c) develop shade-tolerant and disease-resistant cacao varieties, (d) integrate small-stock production into the system, and (e) develop an enabling policy environment addressing cacao marketing, plant protection, land tenure and transformation of non-cacao primary products from the cacao agroforests.
236 citations
TL;DR: Field surveys were conducted with migrant and autochthon farmers in four districts of Ghana, including some measurements at the farm plot level and satellite images in a fifth district, and an analytical grid shows how factors interact.
Abstract: Most researchers defend cocoa agroforests as a model, which guarantees sustainable cocoa production while protecting biodiversity. However, in most countries, farmers’ strategies favour “full sun” cocoa farms, close to the concept of monoculture. Why this apparent paradox? Field surveys were conducted in 2005 and 2008 with 180 migrant and autochthon farmers in four districts of Ghana, including some measurements at the farm plot level and satellite images in a fifth district. An analytical grid shows how factors interact. Adoption of sun-loving hybrids; farmers’ negative perception of ecological services in relation to hybrids; legislation excluding smallholders from the legal timber market; recent expansion of the timber industry; and the migratory phenomenon. Most smallholders consider complex cocoa agroforests as a thing of the past. They were designed at a time when land and forests were abundant. The future of cocoa and timber may lie in ‘light commercial-oriented agroforests’ or a kind of mosaic landscape.
158 citations
TL;DR: The results show that the farmers’ agroforestry practices, in addition to the fact that the cocoa tree stands were continuously regenerated and passed down between generations of farmers, could explain the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon.
Abstract: The sustainability of cocoa growing systems in the humid tropics is debatable. Socio-economic and technical data were obtained from 1,171 cocoa farmers and 1,638 cocoa plantations to assess the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon since the beginning of the twentieth century. On-site, we estimated the age of the cocoa trees and measured their density in a sub-sample of 402 cocoa plantations. We inventoried associated woody species in 45 cocoa plantations from this sub-sample. Our results revealed a high Shannon index for the cocoa plantations (2.6) and showed that an average of 25 tree species per cocoa plantation had been planted with the cocoa trees at a density of 120 trees ha−1. Surveys indicated that there had been no mineral fertilization. Nearly 70% of the cocoa agroforests were over 40 years old, and all farmers continuously regenerated their cocoa tree stands. Irrespective of the cocoa plantation age, the cocoa tree density remained over 1,000 plants ha−1, and fermented dried cocoa yields were 255 kg ha−1 on average. Cocoa agroforests occupied 60% of the cultivated area on farms and cocoa sales accounted for 75% of total farm income. Almost a third of the farmers were from the area and under 40 years old. In conclusion, our results show that the farmers’ agroforestry practices, in addition to the fact that the cocoa tree stands were continuously regenerated and passed down between generations of farmers, could explain the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon.
101 citations
TL;DR: It is found that planting the more recently-released varieties is associated with at least 42% higher yields, and that genetic improvement accounts for much but not all of the observed correlation between tree age and cocoa yield.
Abstract: This paper documents the yield gains attributable to the breeding and distribution of new cocoa varieties in Ghana, using data from a 2002 survey of 192 fields in the country's key cocoa producing regions. We find that planting the more recently-released varieties is associated with at least 42 % higher yields, and that genetic improvement accounts for much but not all of the observed correlation between tree age and cocoa yeild. Fertilizer use is also very important, being associated with 19% higher cocoa yield per 50 kg bag of fertilizer. We find no evidence that varieties differ in their response to fertilizer, pesticide use or labour, and no evidence of a decline in the yield advantage of new varieties over the 17-year age span observed in the sample.
68 citations