Comment: snowball versus respondent-driven sampling
01 Aug 2011-Sociological Methodology (SAGE PublicationsSage CA: Los Angeles, CA)-Vol. 41, Iss: 1, pp 355-366
TL;DR: This comment summarizes the development of the RDS method, distinguishing among seven forms of the estimator, and offers a clarification of a related set of issues.
Abstract: Leo Goodman (2011) provided a useful service with his clarification of the differences among snowball sampling as originally introduced by Coleman (1958–1959) and Goodman (1961) as a means for studying the structure of social networks; snowball sampling as a convenience method for studying hard-to-reach populations (Biernacki and Waldorf 1981); and respondent-driven sampling (RDS), a sampling method with good estimability for studying hard-to-reach populations (Heckathorn 1997, 2002, 2007; Salganik and Heckathorn 2004; Volz and Heckathorn 2008).
This comment offers a clarification of a related set of issues. One is confusion between the latter form of snowball sampling, and RDS. A second is confusion resulting from multiple forms of the RDS estimator that derives from the incremental manner in which the method was developed. This comment summarizes the development of the method, distinguishing among seven forms of the estimator.
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TL;DR: In the 1966 paperback edition of a publication which first appeared in 1963 has by now been widely reviewed as a worthy contribution to the sociological study of deviant behavior as discussed by the authors, and the authors developed a sequential model of deviance relying on the concept of career, a concept originally developed in studies of occupations.
Abstract: This 1966 paperback edition of a publication which first appeared in 1963 has by now been widely reviewed as a worthy contribution to the sociological study of deviant behavior. Its current appearance as a paperback is a testimonial both to the quality of the work and to the prominence of deviant behavior in this generation. In general the author places deviance in perspective, identifies types of deviant behavior, considers the role of rule makers and enforcers, and some of the problems in studying deviance. In addition, he develops a sequential model of deviance relying on the concept of career, a concept originally developed in studies of occupations. In his study of a particular kind of deviance, the use of marihuana, the author posits and tests systematically an hypothesis about the genesis of marihuana use for pleasure. The hypothesis traces the sequence of changes in individual attitude
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TL;DR: This study performed the first quantitative, medium-N analysis of snowball sampling to identify pathways to sample diversity, analysing 211 reach-outs conducted via snowball sampling, resulting in 81 interviews; these interviews were administered for a research project on anti-dam movements in Southeast Asia.
Abstract: Snowball sampling is a commonly employed sampling method in qualitative research; however, the diversity of samples generated via this method has repeatedly been questioned. Scholars have posited several anecdotally based recommendations for enhancing the diversity of snowball samples. In this study, we performed the first quantitative, medium-N analysis of snowball sampling to identify pathways to sample diversity, analysing 211 reach-outs conducted via snowball sampling, resulting in 81 interviews; these interviews were administered between April and August 2015 for a research project on anti-dam movements in Southeast Asia. Based upon this analysis, we were able to refine and enhance the previous recommendations (e.g., showcasing novel evidence on the value of multiple seeds or face-to-face interviews). This paper may thus be of particular interest to scholars employing or intending to employ snowball sampling.
261 citations
TL;DR: The article provides the description and comparison of two non-random samplings which are snowball or chain referral sampling and sequential sampling.
Abstract: The article provides the description and comparison of two non-random samplings which are snowball or chain referral sampling and sequential sampling. Snowball sampling has been widely used in qualitative sociological research, especially in the study of deviant behavior and is used in the place where the population is hard to reach. It also described different form of sampling method. While in sequential sampling, sampling was taken at a given time interval and modification can be made by correcting the research and sampling method to centralize the analysis and make a satisfied decision.
242 citations
TL;DR: There is a digital divide among refugee migrant groups and it is based on inequalities in physical access to and use of digital technology, the skills necessary to use the different technologies effectively and the ability to pay for the services.
Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors which influence refugee migrants’ adoption of digital technology and its relevance to their social inclusion in Australia. Design/methodology/approach – This research developed a conceptual framework keeping the “use” of digital technology as the centre-piece of the digital divide. The empirical data were derived from a series of focus group discussions with refugee migrants in an Australian regional city, Toowoomba in Queensland. Findings – There is a digital divide among refugee migrant groups and it is based on inequalities in physical access to and use of digital technology, the skills necessary to use the different technologies effectively and the ability to pay for the services. The opportunities to use digital technology could support the social inclusion of refugee migrant groups in the broader Australian community. Research limitations/implications – Further research is required to examine whether this digital divide is unique in the r...
234 citations
Cites methods from "Comment: snowball versus respondent..."
...The snowballing technique was used to select the sample as it makes it easy to identify a hard-to-reach and ‘hidden’ population (Heckathorn, 2011)....
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TL;DR: The content of this paper is hoped to serve as a basis for establishing best practices and redesigning the current approaches to assessing scientists by the many players involved in that process.
Abstract: Assessment of researchers is necessary for decisions of hiring, promotion, and tenure. A burgeoning number of scientific leaders believe the current system of faculty incentives and rewards is misaligned with the needs of society and disconnected from the evidence about the causes of the reproducibility crisis and suboptimal quality of the scientific publication record. To address this issue, particularly for the clinical and life sciences, we convened a 22-member expert panel workshop in Washington, DC, in January 2017. Twenty-two academic leaders, funders, and scientists participated in the meeting. As background for the meeting, we completed a selective literature review of 22 key documents critiquing the current incentive system. From each document, we extracted how the authors perceived the problems of assessing science and scientists, the unintended consequences of maintaining the status quo for assessing scientists, and details of their proposed solutions. The resulting table was used as a seed for participant discussion. This resulted in six principles for assessing scientists and associated research and policy implications. We hope the content of this paper will serve as a basis for establishing best practices and redesigning the current approaches to assessing scientists by the many players involved in that process.
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References
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TL;DR: In spite of the fact that chain referral sampling has been widely used in qualitative sociological research, especially in the study of deviant behavior, the problems and techniques involved in its use have not been discussed.
Abstract: In spite of the fact that chain referral sampling has been widely used in qualitative sociological research, especially in the study of deviant behavior, the problems and techniques involved in its...
4,416 citations
Book•
01 Apr 1963TL;DR: One of the most groundbreaking sociology texts of the mid-20th century, Howard S. Becker's Outsiders is a thorough exploration of social deviance and how it can be addressed in an understanding and helpful manner.
Abstract: One of the most groundbreaking sociology texts of the mid-20th century, Howard S. Becker's Outsiders is a thorough exploration of social deviance and how it can be addressed in an understanding and helpful manner. A compulsively readable and thoroughly researched exploration of social deviance and the application of what is known as "labeling theory" to the studies of deviance. With particular research into drug culture, Outsiders analyzes unconventional individuals and their place in normal society.
4,359 citations
TL;DR: A new variant of chain-referral sampling, respondent-driven sampling, is introduced that employs a dual system of structured incentives to overcome some of the deficiencies of such samples and discusses how respondent- driven sampling can improve both network sampling and ethnographic investigation.
Abstract: A population is “hidden” when no sampling frame exists and public acknowledgment of membership in the population is potentially threatening. Accessing such populations is difficult because standard probability sampling methods produce low response rates and responses that lack candor. Existing procedures for sampling these populations, including snowball and other chain-referral samples, the key-informant approach, and targeted sampling, introduce well-documented biases into their samples. This paper introduces a new variant of chain-referral sampling, respondent-driven sampling, that employs a dual system of structured incentives to overcome some of the deficiencies of such samples. A theoretic analysis, drawing on both Markov-chain theory and the theory of biased networks, shows that this procedure can reduce the biases generally associated with chain-referral methods. The analysis includes a proof showing that even though sampling begins with an arbitrarily chosen set of initial subjects, as do most chain-referral samples, the composition of the ultimate sample is wholly independent of those initial subjects. The analysis also includes a theoretic specification of the conditions under which the procedure yields unbiased samples. Empirical results, based on surveys of 277 active drug injectors in Connecticut, support these conclusions. Finally, the conclusion discusses how respondent- driven sampling can improve both network sampling and ethnographic 44 investigation.
3,950 citations
3,460 citations
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15 Aug 2006
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present two different approaches to snowball sampling: the first is to ask a person to inform potential subjects about the research project and share the investigator's contact information, and then it is up to the potential subjects to contact the investigator.
Abstract: Snowball sampling is a recruitment method in which an investigator enlists the help of a research subject in identifying, and possibly recruiting, additional subjects. It is useful when the investigator may not have access to a population of potential subjects who meet inclusion criteria, which may often be stigmatizing. There are two different approaches to snowball recruitment. In the first method, the investigator asks a person to inform potential subjects about the research project and share the investigator's contact information. It is then up to the potential subjects to contact the investigator. The informed consent process should make it clear that agreeing to contact others is not a requisite for participating in the research. Also, the researcher should not offer a reward or a " bounty " for recruiting subjects. This method rarely presents ethical issues for the IRB. The second method is more common but problematic. The investigator asks the first recruited subject for contact information about potential subjects and then contacts them directly. The major ethical issue is that the first subject may be divulging information about other people that they would prefer to be kept confidential. And it is especially problematic when the referring individual is a person of authority in the community. The IRB would evaluate very carefully the context in which this approach to recruitment is occurring. The Boise State University IRB has a good discussion of snowball sampling. For additional discussion, see he discussion on the NSF site.
2,795 citations