Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

doi:10.1111/NHS.12048

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Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

Journal Article•DOI•

Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

Mojtaba Vaismoradi¹, Mojtaba Vaismoradi², Hannele Turunen³, Terese Bondas³, Terese Bondas² - Show less +1 more•Institutions (3)

Swansea University¹, University of Nordland², University of Eastern Finland³

01 Sep 2013-Nursing & Health Sciences (Nurs Health Sci)-Vol. 15, Iss: 3, pp 398-405

TL;DR: It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are two commonly used approaches in data analysis of nursing research, but boundaries between the two have not been clearly specified. In other words, they are being used interchangeably and it seems difficult for the researcher to choose between them. In this respect, this paper describes and discusses the boundaries between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and presents implications to improve the consistency between the purpose of related studies and the method of data analyses. This is a discussion paper, comprising an analytical overview and discussion of the definitions, aims, philosophical background, data gathering, and analysis of content analysis and thematic analysis, and addressing their methodological subtleties. It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data. It means that measuring the frequency of different categories and themes is possible in content analysis with caution as a proxy for significance.

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Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative Content Analysis: A Focus on Trustworthiness

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Satu Elo¹, Maria Kääriäinen¹, Maria Kääriäinen², Outi Kanste, Tarja Pölkki¹, Kati Utriainen¹, Helvi Kyngäs¹, Helvi Kyngäs² - Show less +4 more•Institutions (2)

University of Oulu¹, Oulu University Hospital²

11 Feb 2014-SAGE Open

TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the trustworthiness of content analysis in nursing science studies and found that content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data, however, few articles have examined the use of QCA in nursing studies.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. The trustworthiness of q...

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5,401 citations

Cites background from "Content analysis and thematic analy..."

...However, high intercoder reliability (ICR) is required when more than one coder is involved in deductive data analysis (Vaismoradi et al., 2013)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis?

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Virginia Braun¹, Victoria Clarke²•Institutions (2)

University of Auckland¹, University of the West of England²

03 Jul 2021-Qualitative Research in Psychology

TL;DR: Developing a universal quality standard for thematic analysis (TA) is complicated by the existence of numerous iterations of TA that differ paradigmatically, philosophically and procedurally.

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Abstract: Developing a universal quality standard for thematic analysis (TA) is complicated by the existence of numerous iterations of TA that differ paradigmatically, philosophically and procedurally. This ...

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1,787 citations

Cites background from "Content analysis and thematic analy..."

...…is assumed to offer a low level of interpretation compared to approaches such as grounded theory or narrative analysis (e.g. Aguinaldo 2012; Vaismoradi, Turunen, and Bondas 2013), and this impoverished conceptualisation of TA is often used to justify combining TA with other approaches…...
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Doing a thematic analysis: A practical, step-by-step guide for learning and teaching scholars.

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Moira Maguire¹, Brid Delahunt¹•Institutions (1)

Dundalk Institute of Technology¹

31 Oct 2017

TL;DR: The authors apply Braun and Clarke's (2006) framework to describe and explain the process of qualitative analysis within the context of learning and teaching research and illustrate the process using a worked example based on a short extract from a focus group interview, conducted with undergraduate students.

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Abstract: Data analysis is central to credible qualitative research. Indeed the qualitative researcher is often described as the research instrument insofar as his or her ability to understand, describe and interpret experiences and perceptions is key to uncovering meaning in particular circumstances and contexts. While much has been written about qualitative analysis from a theoretical perspective we noticed that often novice, and even more experienced researchers, grapple with the ‘how’ of qualitative analysis. Here we draw on Braun and Clarke’s (2006) framework and apply it in a systematic manner to describe and explain the process of analysis within the context of learning and teaching research. We illustrate the process using a worked example based on (with permission) a short extract from a focus group interview, conducted with undergraduate students.

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1,178 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Theme development in qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis

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Mojtaba Vaismoradi¹, Jacqueline Jones, Hannele Turunen, Sherrill Snelgrove¹•Institutions (1)

Swansea University¹

15 Jan 2016-Journal of Nursing Education and Practice

TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the meaning of theme and offer a method on theme construction that can be used by qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis researchers in line with the underpinning specific approach to data analysis.

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Abstract: Sufficient knowledge is available about the definition, details and differences of qualitative content and thematic analysis as two approaches of qualitative descriptive research. However, identifying the main features of theme as the data analysis product and the method of its development remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to describe the meaning of theme and offer a method on theme construction that can be used by qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis researchers in line with the underpinning specific approach to data analysis. This methodological paper comprises an analytical overview of qualitative descriptive research products and the meaning of theme. Also, our practical experiences of qualitative analysis supported by relevant published literature informed the generation of a stage like model of theme construction for qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis. This paper comprises: (i) analytical importance of theme, (ii) meaning of theme, (iii) meaning of category, (iv) theme and category in terms of level of content, and (v) theme development. This paper offers a conceptual clarification and a pragmatic step by step method of theme development that has the capacity of assisting nurse researchers understand how theme is developed. As nursing is a pragmatic discipline, nurse researchers have tried to develop practical findings and devise some way to “do something” with findings to enhance the action and impact of nursing. The application of a precise method of theme development for qualitative descriptive data analysis suggested in this paper helps yield meaningful, credible and practical results for nursing.

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1,164 citations

Cites background from "Content analysis and thematic analy..."

...However, some researchers believe that the application of qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis is suitable for those who want to employ a lower level of inference interpretation, rather than a more abstract interpretation.[2, 8] In other words, they focus on the explicit description of the content of communication with a limited reflection on its implicit meaning....
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...In addition, in both methods, the creativity of the researcher is an integral part of the analysis and in presenting the result in terms of a story line.[8]...
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Journal Article•DOI•

A hands-on guide to doing content analysis

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Christen Erlingsson¹, Petra Brysiewicz²•Institutions (2)

Linnaeus University¹, University of KwaZulu-Natal²

01 Sep 2017-African Journal of Emergency Medicine

TL;DR: This manuscript is to provide a practical hands-on example of qualitative content analysis to aid novice qualitative researchers in their task.

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1,100 citations

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References

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Journal Article•DOI•

Using thematic analysis in psychology

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Virginia Braun¹, Victoria Clarke²•Institutions (2)

University of Auckland¹, University of the West of England²

01 Dec 2006-Qualitative Research in Psychology

TL;DR: Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology as mentioned in this paper, and it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data.

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Abstract: Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.

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103,789 citations

"Content analysis and thematic analy..." refers background or methods in this paper

...The process of data analysis in content analysis according to Elo and Kyngäs (2008), and in thematic analysis according to Braun and Clarke (2006) is shown in Table 1....
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...Thematic analysis as an independent qualitative descriptive approach is mainly described as “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006: 79)....
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...Data corpus, data item, data extract, code, and theme in thematic analysis are equivalent in content analysis to the unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensed meaning unit, code, and category/theme, respectively (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...It captures something important about data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of response pattern or meaning within the data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006)....
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...As one part of data analysis, it helps with reviewing themes and achieving the aim of identifying coherent but distinctive themes (Ryan & Bernard, 2000; Braun & Clarke, 2006)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis

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Hsiu-Fang Hsieh¹, Sarah E. Shannon²•Institutions (2)

Fooyin University¹, University of Washington²

01 Nov 2005-Qualitative Health Research

TL;DR: The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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Abstract: Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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31,398 citations

"Content analysis and thematic analy..." refers background or methods in this paper

...Following and accurately describing the type of approach used in studies can provide a universal language for nurse researchers and strengthen the scientific base of any approach to research (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....
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...Inductive content analysis and thematic analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon, and therefore the coded categories are derived directly from the text data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....
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...Certainly, content analysis makes sense of what is mediated between people including textual matter, symbols, messages, information, mass-media content, and technology supported social interactions (Krippendorff, 2004; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....
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...A deductive approach is useful if the general aim of thematic analysis and content analysis is to test a previous theory in a different situation, or to compare categories at different periods (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...It is important for nurse researchers to delineate and recognize the characteristics of the approach they are going to use in their studies before beginning data analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....
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Book•

Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology

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Klaus Krippendorff

01 Jan 1980

TL;DR: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

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Abstract: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

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25,749 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Naturalistic inquiry: Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1985, 416 pp., $25.00 (Cloth)

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Yvonna S. Lincoln, Egon G. Guba, Joseph J. Pilotta

01 Jan 1985-International Journal of Intercultural Relations

21,313 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups

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Allison Tong¹, Allison Tong², Peter Sainsbury², Peter Sainsbury³, Jonathan C. Craig², Jonathan C. Craig¹ - Show less +2 more•Institutions (3)

Children's Hospital at Westmead¹, University of Sydney², Sydney South West Area Health Service³

01 Dec 2007-International Journal for Quality in Health Care

TL;DR: The criteria included in COREQ, a 32-item checklist, can help researchers to report important aspects of the research team, study methods, context of the study, findings, analysis and interpretations.

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Abstract: Background. Qualitative research explores complex phenomena encountered by clinicians, health care providers, policy makers and consumers. Although partial checklists are available, no consolidated reporting framework exists for any type of qualitative design. Objective. To develop a checklist for explicit and comprehensive reporting of qualitative studies (indepth interviews and focus groups). Methods. We performed a comprehensive search in Cochrane and Campbell Protocols, Medline, CINAHL, systematic reviews of qualitative studies, author or reviewer guidelines of major medical journals and reference lists of relevant publications for existing checklists used to assess qualitative studies. Seventy-six items from 22 checklists were compiled into a comprehensive list. All items were grouped into three domains: (i) research team and reflexivity, (ii) study design and (iii) data analysis and reporting. Duplicate items and those that were ambiguous, too broadly defined and impractical to assess were removed. Results. Items most frequently included in the checklists related to sampling method, setting for data collection, method of data collection, respondent validation of findings, method of recording data, description of the derivation of themes and inclusion of supporting quotations. We grouped all items into three domains: (i) research team and reflexivity, (ii) study design and (iii) data analysis and reporting. Conclusions. The criteria included in COREQ, a 32-item checklist, can help researchers to report important aspects of the research team, study methods, context of the study, findings, analysis and interpretations.

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18,169 citations

"Content analysis and thematic analy..." refers background in this paper

...In health care, qualitative methodologies aim to explore complex phenomena encountered by nurses, other providers, policy makers, and patients (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Sandelowski & Barroso, 2003a; Tong et al., 2007)....
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