Content Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes It Special?

doi:10.1177/0022487108324554

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Content Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes It Special?

Journal Article•DOI•

Content Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes It Special?

Deborah Loewenberg Ball¹, Mark Hoover Thames¹, Geoffrey Phelps¹•Institutions (1)

University of Michigan¹

01 Nov 2008-Journal of Teacher Education (SAGE Publications)-Vol. 59, Iss: 5, pp 389-407

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a practice-based theory of content knowledge for teaching built on Shulman's (1986) notion of pedagogical content knowledge and applied it to the problem of teaching.

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Abstract: This article reports the authors' efforts to develop a practice-based theory of content knowledge for teaching built on Shulman's (1986) notion of pedagogical content knowledge. As the concept of p...

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Journal Article•DOI•

Conceptualizing Teacher Professional Learning

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V. Darleen Opfer, David Pedder

01 Sep 2011-Review of Educational Research

TL;DR: In this article, the authors adopt a complexity theory framework to review the literature on teachers' professional development practices, the generative systems of these practices, and the impact that learning experiences have on their knowledge and changes in classroom practices.

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Abstract: This article adopts a complexity theory framework to review the literature on teachers’ professional development practices, the generative systems of these practices, and the impact that learning experiences have on their knowledge and changes in classroom practices. The review brings together multiple strands of literature on teacher professional development, teaching and learning, teacher change, and organizational learning. In doing so, it illustrates that process–product logic has dominated the literature on teacher professional learning and that this has limited explanatory ability. The review demonstrates the ways the elements of three subsystems (the teacher, the school, and the learning activity) interact and combine in different ways and with varying intensities to influence teacher learning. The limitations of studies focusing on specific elements or subsystems are highlighted. The article concludes that to understand teacher learning scholars must adopt methodological practices that focus on ex...

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1,269 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Formative assessment: a critical review

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Randy Elliot Bennett¹•Institutions (1)

Princeton University¹

25 Jan 2011-Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice

TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss six interrelated issues in formative assessment (aka, "assessment for learning"): the definition of formative assessments, the claims commonly made for its effectiveness, the limited attention given to domain considerations in its conceptualisation, the under-representation of measurement principles in that conceptualization, the teacher-support demands, and the impact of the larger educational system.

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Abstract: This paper covers six interrelated issues in formative assessment (aka, ‘assessment for learning’). The issues concern the definition of formative assessment, the claims commonly made for its effectiveness, the limited attention given to domain considerations in its conceptualisation, the under-representation of measurement principles in that conceptualisation, the teacher-support demands formative assessment entails, and the impact of the larger educational system. The paper concludes that the term, ‘formative assessment’, does not yet represent a well-defined set of artefacts or practices. Although research suggests that the general practices associated with formative assessment can facilitate learning, existing definitions admit such a wide variety of implementations that effects should be expected to vary widely from one implementation and student population to the next. In addition, the magnitude of commonly made quantitative claims for effectiveness is suspect, deriving from untraceable, flawed, dated, or unpublished sources. To realise maximum benefit from formative assessment, new development should focus on conceptualising well-specified approaches built around process and methodology rooted within specific content domains. Those conceptualisations should incorporate fundamental measurement principles that encourage teachers and students to recognise the inferential nature of assessment. The conceptualisations should also allow for the substantial time and professional support needed if the vast majority of teachers are to become proficient users of formative assessment. Finally, for greatest benefit, formative approaches should be conceptualised as part of a comprehensive system in which all components work together to facilitate learning.

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1,013 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching and the Mathematical Quality of Instruction: An Exploratory Study

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Heather C. Hill¹, Merrie Blunk², Charalambos Y. Charalambous², Jennifer M. Lewis², Geoffrey Phelps², Laurie Sleep², Deborah Loewenberg Ball² - Show less +3 more•Institutions (2)

Harvard University¹, University of Michigan²

26 Sep 2008-Cognition and Instruction

TL;DR: This paper found that teachers' mathematical knowledge plays an important role in their teaching of this subject matter and that there is a significant, strong, and positive association between levels of mathematical knowledge and the mathematical quality of instruction.

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Abstract: This study illuminates claims that teachers' mathematical knowledge plays an important role in their teaching of this subject matter. In particular, we focus on teachers' mathematical knowledge for teaching (MKT), which includes both the mathematical knowledge that is common to individuals working in diverse professions and the mathematical knowledge that is specialized to teaching. We use a series of five case studies and associated quantitative data to detail how MKT is associated with the mathematical quality of instruction. Although there is a significant, strong, and positive association between levels of MKT and the mathematical quality of instruction, we also find that there are a number of important factors that mediate this relationship, either supporting or hindering teachers' use of knowledge in practice.

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865 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

The Sociopolitical Turn in Mathematics Education

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Rochelle Gutiérrez

01 Jan 2013-Journal for Research in Mathematics Education

TL;DR: The authors highlights some promising conceptual tools from critical theory (including critical race theory/Latcrit theory) and post-structuralism and makes an argument for why taking the sociopolitical turn is important for both researchers and practitioners.

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Abstract: Over the past decade, the mathematics education research community has incorporated more sociocultural perspectives into its ways of understanding and examining teaching and learning. However, researchers who have a long history of addressing anti-racism and social justice issues in mathematics have moved beyond this sociocultural view to espouse sociopolitical concepts and theories, highlighting identity and power at play. This article highlights some promising conceptual tools from critical theory (including critical race theory/Latcrit theory) and post-structuralism and makes an argument for why taking the sociopolitical turn is important for both researchers and practitioners. Potential benefits and challenges of this turn are also discussed.

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489 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Teachers’ Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge The Role of Structural Differences in Teacher Education

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Thilo Kleickmann¹, Dirk Richter, Mareike Kunter², Jürgen Elsner³, Michael Besser⁴, Stefan Krauss⁵, Jürgen Baumert³ - Show less +3 more•Institutions (5)

Leibniz Association¹, Goethe University Frankfurt², Max Planck Society³, University of Kassel⁴, University of Regensburg⁵

01 Jan 2013-Journal of Teacher Education

TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared the content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of four groups of mathematics teachers at different points in their teaching careers in Germany and found that the largest differences in CK and PCK were found between the beginning and the end of initial teacher education.

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Abstract: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and content knowledge (CK) are key components of teacher competence that affect student progress. However, little is known about how teacher education affects the development of CK and PCK. To address this question, our research group constructed tests to directly assess mathematics teachers’ CK and PCK. Based on these tests, we compared the PCK and CK of four groups of mathematics teachers at different points in their teaching careers in Germany. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that PCK and CK measurement was satisfactorily invariant across the teacher populations considered. As expected, the largest differences in CK and PCK were found between the beginning and the end of initial teacher education. Differences in the structures of teacher education were reasonably well reflected in participants’ CK and PCK.

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452 citations

Cites background or methods from "Content Knowledge for Teaching: Wha..."

...Thus, this facet represents aspects of KCT as well as aspects of the “Specialized Content Knowledge (SCK)” category in the MKT framework (Ball et al., 2008)....
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...Literature on PCK identified two core facets of that knowledge: knowledge of students’ subject-specific conceptions and misconceptions as well as knowledge of subject-specific teaching strategies and representations (see also Ball et al., 2008; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Park & Oliver, 2008)....
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...teacher knowledge of subject matter (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, & Pape, 2006), focusing on two main constructs: CK and PCK (Ball et al., 2008; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Grossman, 1990; Shulman, 1987)....
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...Within the MKT framework, this facet corresponds to the “Knowledge of Content and Students (KCS)” domain (Ball et al., 2008)....
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...…pedagogical content knowledge, regression analysis, measurement invariance teacher knowledge of subject matter (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, & Pape, 2006), focusing on two main constructs: CK and PCK (Ball et al., 2008; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Grossman, 1990; Shulman, 1987)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching

[...]

Lee S. Shulman¹•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Feb 1986-Educational Researcher

TL;DR: In this paper, Shulman observa la historia de evaluaciones docentes, noting that the evaluación docente parecia preocuparse tanto por los conocimientos, como el siglo anterior se preoccupaba por la pedagogia.

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Abstract: Este articulo fue un discurso presidencial en la reunion de America Educational Research Association de Chicago el ano 1985. -- Curioso sobre el por que el publico a menudo tiene una baja opinion sobre el conocimiento de los profesores, Shulman observa la historia de evaluaciones docentes. En la segunda mitad del 1800, las evaluaciones para quienes deseaban ensenar se basaban casi por completo en contenido. Para el ano en que el autor escribe el articulo, en 1985, la evaluacion era completamente distinta. En lugar de enfocarse en contenido, se enfocaba en topicos como planificacion de clases, sensibilizacion cultural, y otros aspectos de la conducta docente. Mientras los topicos usualmente tenian raices en la investigacion, claramente no representan el amplio espectro de habilidades y conocimientos que un docente necesita para ser efectivo. Mas especificamente, para los anos 80', la evaluacion docente parecia preocuparse tanto por los conocimientos, como el siglo anterior se preocupaba por la pedagogia.

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15,740 citations

"Content Knowledge for Teaching: Wha..." refers background or methods in this paper

...To represent our current hypotheses, we propose a refinement to Shulman’s categories. Figure 2 shows the correspondence between our current map of the domain of content knowledge for teaching and Shulman’s (1986) initial categories: subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge....
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...…of content and students and knowledge of content and teaching—coincide with the two central dimensions of pedagogical content knowledge identified by Shulman (1986): “the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning of those most…...
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...Drawing on Schwab (1961/1978), Shulman (1986) argued that knowing a subject for teaching requires more than knowing its facts and concepts....
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...Shulman (1986) defined pedagogical content knowledge as comprising: The most useful forms of representation of those ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations—in a word, the most useful ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it…...
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...In the two decades since these ideas were first presented, Shulman’s presidential address (1986) and the related Harvard Education Review article (1987) have been cited in over 1200 refereed journal articles....
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CONOCIMIENTO Y ENSEÑANZA: FUNDAMENTOS DE LA NUEVA REFORMA 1 Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform

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Lee S. Shulman

01 Jan 2005

TL;DR: Lee S. Shulman as mentioned in this paper builds his foundation for teachi ng reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprension and reasoning, transformation and reflection, and argues that this emphasis is justified by the resoluteness with which research and policy have so blatantly ignored those aspects of teaching in the past.

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Abstract: Lee S. Shulman builds his foundation for teachi ng reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprension and reasoning, transformation and reflection. "This emphasis is justified" he writes, "by the resoluteness with which research and policy have so blatantly ignored those aspects of teaching in the past". To articulate and justify this conception, Shulman responds to four questions: What are the sources of the knowledge base for teaching? In what terms can these sources be conceptualized? What are the processes of pedagogical reasoning and action? And What are the implications for teaching policy and educational reform? The answers -informed by philosophy, psychology, and a growing body of casework based on young and experienced practitioners- go far beyond current reform assumptions and initiatives. The outcome for educational practitioners, scholars,

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13,211 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform

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Lee S. Shulman

01 Apr 1987-Harvard Educational Review

TL;DR: Lee S. Shulman as mentioned in this paper builds his foundation for teaching reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprehension and reasoning, transformation and reflection. "This emphasis is justified," he writes,...

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Abstract: Lee S. Shulman builds his foundation for teaching reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprehension and reasoning, transformation and reflection. "This emphasis is justified," he writes, ...

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12,926 citations

"Content Knowledge for Teaching: Wha..." refers background in this paper

...389...
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...He argued that “the currently incomplete and trivial definitions of teaching held by the policy community comprise a far greater danger to good education than does a more serious attempt to formulate the knowledge base” (Shulman, 1987, p. 20)....
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...…development of a National Board system for the certification of teachers that would “focus upon the teacher’s ability to reason about teaching and to teach specific topics, and to base his or her actions on premises that can bear the scrutiny of the professional community” (Shulman, 1987, p. 20)....
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Manuscript in preparation

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H Shimada

01 Jan 2007

4,037 citations

Book•

Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics

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Jeremy Kilpatrick, Jane Swafford, Bradford Findell

19 Mar 2013

TL;DR: Adding It Up explores how students in pre-K through 8th grade learn mathematics and recommends how teaching, curricula, and teacher education should change to improve mathematics learning during these critical years.

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Abstract: Adding It Up explores how students in pre-K through 8th grade learn mathematics and recommends how teaching, curricula, and teacher education should change to improve mathematics learning during these critical years. The committee identifies five interdependent components of mathematical proficiency and describes how students develop this proficiency. With examples and illustrations, the book presents a portrait of mathematics learning: * Research findings on what children know about numbers by the time they arrive in pre-K and the implications for mathematics instruction. * Details on the processes by which students acquire mathematical proficiency with whole numbers, rational numbers, and integers, as well as beginning algebra, geometry, measurement, and probability and statistics. The committee discusses what is known from research about teaching for mathematics proficiency, focusing on the interactions between teachers and students around educational materials and how teachers develop proficiency in teaching mathematics.

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3,480 citations