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Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind

01 Jan 1991-
TL;DR: In this article, the differences in the way strategists and their followers think are discussed, and practical solutions for those in business to help solve conflict between different groups are proposed, with a focus on how to find common problems which demand cooperation for the solution of these problems.
Abstract: Despite calls for better co-operation between countries and different cultures, there is still confrontation between people, groups and nations. But at the same time they are exposed to common problems which demand cooperation for the solution of these problems. This book helps to understand the differences in the way strategists and their followers think, offering practical solutions for those in business to help solve conflict between different groups.
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that individuals with both an internal locus of control and innovative orientation appeared more frequently in highly individualistic and low uncertainty cultures than in collectivistic, high uncertainty avoidance cultures.

1,657 citations


Cites background from "Cultures and Organizations: Softwar..."

  • ...Collectivism, at the opposite pole from individualism, pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive ingroups which throughout a lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede 1991, p. 51)....

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  • ...Hofstede defines uncertainty avoidance as “. . . the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations” (Hofstede 1991, p. 113)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Subjective well-being in 55 nations, reported in probability surveys and a large college student sample, was correlated with social, economic, and cultural characteristics of the nations and only individualism persistently correlated with SWB when other predictors were controlled.
Abstract: Subjective well-being (SWB) in 55 nations, reported in probability surveys and a large college student sample, was correlated with social, economic, and cultural characteristics of the nations. The SWB surveys, representing nations that include three fourths of the earth's population, showed strong convergence. Separate measures of the predictor variables also converged and formed scales with high reliability, with the exception of the comparison variables. High income, individualism, human rights, and societal equality correlated strongly with each other, and with SWB across surveys. Income correlated with SWB even after basic need fulfillment was controlled. Only individualism persistently correlated with SWB when other predictors were controlled. Cultural homogeneity, income growth, and income comparison showed either low or inconsistent relations with SWB.

1,617 citations


Cites background from "Cultures and Organizations: Softwar..."

  • ...A broad cultural variable that may potentially influence SWB is individualism–collectivism (I–C; Triandis, 1989),which is also labeled independence–interdependence (Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Markus & Kitayama, 1991)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A review of the organizational and cross-cultural IT literature is provided in order to lend insights into the understanding of the linkages between IT and culture and develops a theory of IT, values, and conflict.
Abstract: An understanding of culture is important to the study of information technologies in that culture at various levels, including national, organizational, and group, can influence the successful implementation and use of information technology. Culture also plays a role in managerial processes that may directly, or indirectly, influence IT. Culture is a challenging variable to research, in part because of the multiple divergent definitions and measures of culture. Notwithstanding, a wide body of literature has emerged that sheds light on the relationship of IT and culture. This paper sets out to provide a review of this literature in order to lend insights into our understanding of the linkages between IT and culture. We begin by conceptualizing culture and laying the groundwork for a values-based approach to the examination of IT and culture. Using this approach, we then provide a comprehensive review of the organizational and cross-cultural IT literature that conceptually links these two traditionally separate streams of research. From our analysis, we develop six themes of IT-culture research emphasizing culture's impact on IT, IT's impact on culture, and IT culture. Building upon these themes, we then develop a theory of IT, values, and conflict. Based upon the theory, we develop propositions concerning three types of cultural conflict and the results of these conflicts. Ultimately, the theory suggests that the reconciliation of these conflicts results in a reorientation of values. We conclude with the particular research challenges posed in this line of inquiry.

1,591 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a learning perspective was brought to the literature examining whether firms expand internationally through start-ups or acquisitions, and the authors investigated how this strategic decision affects the performance of the companies.
Abstract: This study brings a fresh approach—a learning perspective—to the literature examining whether firms expand internationally through start-ups or acquisitions. Hypotheses concern how this strategic c...

1,574 citations


Cites background from "Cultures and Organizations: Softwar..."

  • ...Companies often establish start-ups hy sending over expatriates vî ho carefully select and hire employees from the local population (Hofstede, 1991) and gradually build up the business (Simmonds, 1990; Teece, 1982), alone or with a local partner with knowledge of local institutions, local business practices, and so on....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results suggest that global virtual teams may experience a form of ‘swift’ trust but such trust appears to be very fragile and temporal.
Abstract: This paper explores the challenges of creating and maintaining trust in a global virtual team whose members transcend time, space, and culture. The challenges are highlighted by integrating recent literature on work teams, computer-mediated communication groups, cross-cultural communication, and interpersonal and organizational trust. To explore these challenges empirically, we report on a series of descriptive case studies on global virtual teams whose members were separated by location and culture, were challenged by a common collaborative project, and for whom the only economically and practically viable communication medium was asynchronous and synchronous computer-mediated communication. The results suggest that global virtual teams may experience a form of ‘swift’ trust but such trust appears to be very fragile and temporal. The study raises a number of issues to be explored and debated by future research. Pragmatically, the study describes communication behaviors that might facilitate trust in global virtual teams.

1,573 citations