D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Communications
TL;DR: A modulation technique called depleted MoSK (D-MoSK) in which, molecules are released if the information bit is 1 and no molecule is released for 0, and the proposed scheme enjoys reduced number of the types of molecules for encoding.
Abstract: Molecular communication in nanonetworks is an emerging communication paradigm that uses molecules as information carriers. In molecule shift keying (MoSK), where different types of molecules are used for encoding, transmitter and receiver complexities increase as the modulation order increases. We propose a modulation technique called depleted MoSK (D-MoSK) in which, molecules are released if the information bit is 1 and no molecule is released for 0. The proposed scheme enjoys reduced number of the types of molecules for encoding. Numerical results show that the achievable rate is considerably higher and symbol error rate (SER) performance is better in the proposed technique.
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30 Apr 2019
TL;DR: A comprehensive survey of the existing literature on transmitter and receiver architectures toward realizing MC among nanomaterial-based nanomachines and/or biological entities can be found in this article.
Abstract: Inspired by nature, molecular communications (MC), i.e., the use of molecules to encode, transmit, and receive information, stands as the most promising communication paradigm to realize the nanonetworks. Even though there has been extensive theoretical research toward nanoscale MC, there are no examples of implemented nanoscale MC networks. The main reason for this lies in the peculiarities of nanoscale physics, challenges in nanoscale fabrication, and highly stochastic nature of the biochemical domain of envisioned nanonetwork applications. This mandates developing novel device architectures and communication methods compatible with MC constraints. To that end, various transmitter and receiver designs for MC have been proposed in the literature together with numerable modulation, coding, and detection techniques. However, these works fall into domains of a very wide spectrum of disciplines, including, but not limited to, information and communication theory, quantum physics, materials science, nanofabrication, physiology, and synthetic biology. Therefore, we believe it is imperative for the progress of the field that an organized exposition of cumulative knowledge on the subject matter can be compiled. Thus, to fill this gap, in this comprehensive survey, we review the existing literature on transmitter and receiver architectures toward realizing MC among nanomaterial-based nanomachines and/or biological entities and provide a complete overview of modulation, coding, and detection techniques employed for MC. Moreover, we identify the most significant shortcomings and challenges in all these research areas and propose potential solutions to overcome some of them.
94 citations
TL;DR: This article proposes a novel gated recurrent residual neural network (GrrNet) for feature-based AMC, where the amplitude and phase of the received signal are utilized as the inputs of GrrNet and it is shown that Grr net outperforms other recent DL- based AMC methods.
Abstract: The development of the Internet-of-Things (IoT) security is comparatively slower than the pace of the IoT innovations. The seamless IoT network operates in an untrusted environment and is exposed to many malicious active attacks. As the process of identifying the modulation format of signals is corrupted by noise and fading, automatic modulation classification (AMC) can be viewed as an effective approach to counter physical-layer threats for IoT as it can detect and identify the pilot jamming, deceptive jamming, and Sybil attacks. Nowadays, data-driven deep learning (DL) techniques, which are capable of extracting discriminative features and perform better robustness to channel and noise conditions, have drawn widespread attention. The deep residual network (ResNet) has a strong representative ability, which can learn latent information repeatedly from the received signals and improve the classification accuracy. Meanwhile, the gated recurrent unit (GRU), which is capable of exploiting temporal information of the received signal can expand the dimension of the signal features for satisfactory classification performance. Considering the advantages of the above networks, this article proposes a novel gated recurrent residual neural network (GrrNet) for feature-based AMC, where the amplitude and phase of the received signal are utilized as the inputs of GrrNet. In GrrNet, a ResNet extractor module is first designed to extract the highly representative features and then temporal information is obtained by the subsequent GRU module which is capable of processing the representative features with the arbitrary length for modulation classification. Moreover, extensive simulations are conducted to verify the classification performance and robustness of the proposed GrrNet and it is shown that GrrNet outperforms other recent DL-based AMC methods. Moreover, the influence of the network parameters, symbol length, and frequency offset on performance is also explored.
74 citations
Cites background from "D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..."
...Moreover, tractable analytical models may not exist under some scenes such as molecular communications [8], and this will largely degrade the classification performance of the traditional model-driven classifier....
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TL;DR: This comprehensive survey of the existing literature on transmitter and receiver architectures toward realizing molecular communications among nanomaterial-based nanomachines and/or biological entities is reviewed and provides a complete overview of modulation, coding, and detection techniques employed for MC.
Abstract: Inspired by Nature, molecular communications (MC), i.e., use of molecules to encode, transmit and receive information, stands as the most promising communication paradigm to realize nanonetworks. Even though there has been extensive theoretical research towards nanoscale MC, there are no examples of implemented nanoscale MC networks. The main reason for this lies in the peculiarities of nanoscale physics, challenges in nanoscale fabrication and highly stochastic nature of biochemical domain of envisioned nanonetwork applications. This mandates developing novel device architectures and communication methods compatible with MC constraints. To that end, various transmitter and receiver designs for MC have been proposed in literature together with numerable modulation, coding and detection techniques. However, these works fall into domains of a very wide spectrum of disciplines, including but not limited to information and communication theory, quantum physics, materials science, nanofabrication, physiology and synthetic biology. Therefore, we believe it is imperative for the progress of the field that, an organized exposition of cumulative knowledge on subject matter be compiled. Thus, to fill this gap, in this comprehensive survey we review the existing literature on transmitter and receiver architectures towards realizing MC amongst nanomaterial-based nanomachines and/or biological entities, and provide a complete overview of modulation, coding and detection techniques employed for MC. Moreover, we identify the most significant shortcomings and challenges in all these research areas, and propose potential solutions to overcome some of them.
72 citations
Cites background from "D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..."
...Depleted MoSK (D-MoSK) [122] Molecule type No k 2...
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TL;DR: D molecular space shift keying (MSSK) is proposed as a novel modulation for molecular MIMO systems, and it is found that this method combats ISI and ILI considerably better than the existing MIMo approaches.
Abstract: Molecular communication via diffusion (MCvD) is a molecular communication method that utilizes the free diffusion of carrier molecules to transfer information at the nanoscale. Due to the random propagation of carrier molecules, intersymbol interference (ISI) is a major issue in an MCvD system. Alongside ISI, interlink interference (ILI) is also an issue that increases the total interference for the MCvD-based multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) approaches. Inspired by the antenna index modulation (IM) concept in traditional communication systems, this paper introduces novel IM-based transmission schemes for MCvD systems. In this paper, molecular space shift keying (MSSK) is proposed as a novel modulation for molecular MIMO systems, and it is found that this method combats ISI and ILI considerably better than the existing MIMO approaches. For nanomachines that have access to two different molecules, the direct extension of MSSK, quadrature MSSK (QMSSK) is also proposed. QMSSK is found to combat ISI considerably well while not performing well against ILI-caused errors. In order to combat ILI more effectively, another dual-molecule-based novel modulation scheme called the molecular spatial modulation (MSM) is proposed. Combined with the Gray mapping imposed on the antenna indices, MSM is observed to yield reliable error rates for molecular MIMO systems.
67 citations
Cites background from "D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..."
...Time (horizontal) Space (vertical) h1,j [1] h1,j [2] h1,j [3] h1,j [4] h1,j [5]...
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...In an MCvD system, the information is encoded in the quantity [2], type [3], temporal position [4], and possibly more physical properties of the molecular waves....
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...Note that the SISO baseline for dual-molecule systems is the binary depleted molecular shift keying (D-MoSK) modulation presented in [2], which is defined as two BCSK streams working in parallel and orthogonal channels....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed an energy-efficient spatial modulation-based molecular communication (SM-MC) scheme, in which a transmitted symbol is composed of two parts, i.e., a space derived symbol and a concentration derived symbol.
Abstract: In this paper, we propose an energy-efficient spatial modulation-based molecular communication (SM-MC) scheme, in which a transmitted symbol is composed of two parts, i.e., a space derived symbol and a concentration derived symbol. The space symbol is transmitted by embedding the information into the index of a single activated transmitter nanomachine. The concentration symbol is drawn according to the conventional concentration shift keying (CSK) constellation. Benefiting from a single active transmitter during each symbol period, SM-MC can avoid the inter-link interference problem existing in the current multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) based MC schemes, which hence enables low-complexity symbol detection and performance improvement. Correspondingly, we propose a low-complexity scheme, which first detects the space symbol by energy comparison, and then detects the concentration symbol by the maximum ratio combining assisted CSK demodulation. In this paper, we analyze the symbol error rate (SER) of the SM-MC and of its special case, namely the space shift keying-based MC (SSK-MC), where only space symbol is transmitted and no CSK modulation is invoked. Finally, the analytical results are validated by computer simulations. Our studies demonstrate that both the SSK-MC and SM-MC are capable of achieving better SER performance than the conventional MIMO-MC and single-input single-output-based MC, when given the same symbol rate.
58 citations
References
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TL;DR: The state-of-the-art in the area of molecular communication is presented by discussing its architecture, features, applications, design, engineering, and physical modeling and challenges and opportunities in developing networking mechanisms and communication protocols to create a network from a large number of bio-nanomachines for future applications are discussed.
Abstract: The ability of engineered biological nanomachines to communicate with biological systems at the molecular level is anticipated to enable future applications such as monitoring the condition of a human body, regenerating biological tissues and organs, and interfacing artificial devices with neural systems From the viewpoint of communication theory and engineering, molecular communication is proposed as a new paradigm for engineered biological nanomachines to communicate with the natural biological nanomachines which form a biological system Distinct from the current telecommunication paradigm, molecular communication uses molecules as the carriers of information; sender biological nanomachines encode information on molecules and release the molecules in the environment, the molecules then propagate in the environment to receiver biological nanomachines, and the receiver biological nanomachines biochemically react with the molecules to decode information Current molecular communication research is limited to small-scale networks of several biological nanomachines Key challenges to bridge the gap between current research and practical applications include developing robust and scalable techniques to create a functional network from a large number of biological nanomachines Developing networking mechanisms and communication protocols is anticipated to introduce new avenues into integrating engineered and natural biological nanomachines into a single networked system In this paper, we present the state-of-the-art in the area of molecular communication by discussing its architecture, features, applications, design, engineering, and physical modeling We then discuss challenges and opportunities in developing networking mechanisms and communication protocols to create a network from a large number of bio-nanomachines for future applications
587 citations
Book•
15 Oct 1999
TL;DR: A glossary of words and phrases related to proteins, amino acids, and other substances used in medicine and chemistry, as well as other areas of science, which are suitable for topical application.
Abstract: ion — specific removal of bonded atom from a structure. A reaction that removes an atom from a structure. AC — alternating current. Accommodation — voluntarily thickening the lens of the eye to focus diverging rays of light from nearby objects on the fovea of the retina; visual focusing on nearby objects. Acellular — cell-free. Acetylcholine — a chemical neurotransmitter. Acetylcholinesterase — enzyme that rapidly degrades acetylcholine. Acidophilic — acid-loving. Acoustomechanical conversion — conversion of acoustic energy into mechanical energy. Action potential — complete sequence of electrical events accompanying and following the nerve impulse. Active site — the restricted part of a protein to which a substrate binds. Adduct — in chemistry, an addition product or complex; in biomechanics, to draw together physically separated components. Adiabatic — change in pressure or volume without loss or gain of heat. Adipocyte — fat cell. Adipose — fatty; pertaining to fat. ADP — adenosine diphosphate; has one energy-rich phosphate bond. Adrenergic — activated or energized by adrenalin (epinephrine). Adsorption — attachment of a substance to the surface of another material. Aerobic — needing oxygen to live or function. Aerobots (aerobotics) — aerial (flying) robots. Afferent — in relation to nerves or blood vessels, conducting toward structure or organ; carrying impulses toward a center, as when sensory nerves carry sensory information toward the brain or spinal cord. Affinity (constant) — the strength of the binding of a ligand to a receptor, or the reciprocal of the dissociation rate constant; a measure of the binding energy of a ligand in a receptor; the greater the affinity, the more securely the receptor binds the ligand. AFM — see Atomic Force Microscope. Aft — toward the rear. Agglutinin — an antibody present in the blood that attaches to antigens, such as those found on the surfaces of red blood cells, causing them to clump together; agglutinins cause transfusion reactions when blood from a different group is given. Agonist — in pharmacology, a drug which binds to a receptor and thus stimulates the receptor’s function, possibly mimicking the body’s own regulatory function. Compare antagonist. Albumin — one of a group of simple proteins widely distributed in plant and animal tissues. ALC — airborne lethal concentration. Algorithm — in general, a formula or set of rules for solving a particular problem; in medicine, a set of steps used in diagnosing and treating a disease. Alimentary — pertaining to the digestive tract. Nanomedicine • Volume I 398 Alimentography — a physical description (and mapping) of the human alimentary canal. Aliquot — a portion obtained by dividing the whole into equal parts without a remainder; loosely, any one of two or more samples of something, of the same volume or weight. Alkali — strongly basic substance, especially the metal hydroxides, usually associated with the alkali metals (e.g. sodium and potassium). Allele — one of several alternative forms of a gene occupying a given locus on paired chromosomes. Alloantigen — a substance present in certain individuals that stimulates antibody production in other members of the same species, but not in the original donor. See also antiserum. Allometric scaling laws — in biology, scaling laws that involve a biological variable that is an exponential function of the mass of the organism. Allosteric control — the ability of an interaction at one site of a protein to influence the activity of another site. Allotropic — pertains to the existence of a chemical element or compound in two or more distinct forms with different physical and chemical properties (e.g. diamond and graphite are allotropes of C). Alphanumeric — able to contain both alphabetic and numeric characters. Alveolus (alveolar) — in anatomy, a small cell or cavity; a saclike dilation. Most commonly, a small air sac found at the lowest levels of the branching tube system comprising the lungs. AM — amplitude modulation. Amide — a molecule containing an amine bonded to a carboxyl group (e.g. CONH2). Amide bonds link amino acids in peptides and proteins. Amine — a molecule containing N with a single bond to C and two other single bonds to H or C (but not an amide); the amine group or moiety (e.g. -NH2). Amino acid — a molecule containing both an amine and a carboxylic acid group; there are 20 genetically encoded amino acids in biology. Amniotic — pertaining to the amnion (the innermost of the fetal membranes). Amphipathic — molecular structures which have two surfaces or ends, one of which is hydrophilic and the other of which is hydrophobic. Lipids are amphipathic, and some protein regions may form amphipathic helices with one charged face and one neutral face. Anabolism — the constructive phase of metabolism and the opposite of catabolism; in anabolism, a cell takes from the blood the substances required for repair and growth, building them into a cytoplasm, thus converting nonliving material into the living cytoplasm of the cell. Anaerobic — able to live or function without oxygen. Analgesia — absence of normal sense of pain. Analog — pertaining to data measurable and representable through continuously variable physical quantities. Compare digital. Anaphase — the phase of mitosis (cell division) beginning with centromere division and the movement of chromosomes away from the metaphase plate toward opposite spindle poles. Anaphylactoid-type reaction — a physiological response similar to anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis — the immediate transient kind of immunologic (allergic) reaction characterized by contraction of smooth muscle and dilation of capillaries due to release of pharmacologically active substances (e.g. histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, etc.); a powerful allergic response. Anaphylaxis is classically initiated by the combination of antigen (allergen) with mast cell-fixed, cytophilic antibody (chiefly IgE immunoglobulin), but can also be initiated by relatively large quantities of serum aggregates (antibody-antigen complexes, and other) that seemingly activate complement leading to production of anaphylatoxin. Anastomose — to open one structure into another directly or by connecting channels, usually said of blood vessels, lymphatics, and hollow viscera; to unite by means of an anastomosis, or a connection between formerly separate structures. AND gate — a logical gate that returns a high (1) output if and only if both input signals are high (1). See bit. Anergic — unresponsive. Aneutronic — without neutrons. Angioedema — a condition characterized by development of urticaria (hives) and edematous (swollen with excessive fluid) areas of skin, mucous membranes, or viscera. Angiogenesis — growth of new blood vessels, especially capillaries. Anion — a negatively charged ion. Anisotropic — not isotropic. Anode — the positive pole of an electrical source. ANS — see autonomic nervous system. Antagonist — in pharmacology, a drug that prevents receptor function. Compare agonist. Anterior — the front of the human body, on or nearest the abdominal surface; the front of something. Anteroinferior — in front and below. Basic Capabilities • Glossary 399 Anteroposterior — passing from front to rear. Anthropogenic — caused by human activity. Antibody — a protein (immunoglobulin) produced by B-lymphocyte cells that recognizes a particular foreign antigen, thus triggering the immune response. Antigen — any molecule or foreign substance that, when introduced into the body, provokes synthesis of an antibody, thus stimulating an immune response. Antiserum — serum that contains demonstrable antibody or antibodies specific for one (monovalent) or more (polyvalent) antigens. Aorta — the largest artery in the human body, leading away from the heart. Apheresis — removal of blood from an individual patient, separating certain elements (e.g. red cells, platelets, white cells) for use elsewhere, and reintroducing the remaining components into the patients; also known as cytapheresis, hemapheresis, leukapheresis, pheresis, and plasmapheresis, depending on the type of cells being harvested. Apical — pertaining to the apex (e.g. the point of a cone) of a structure. Apoptosis — an orderly disintegration of eukaryotic cells into membrane-bound particles that may then be phagocytosed by other cells. Aqueous humor — transparent liquid contained in the anterior chamber of the eyeball in front of the lens. Aromatic compounds — in chemistry, ring or cyclic compounds related to benzene, many having a fragrant odor. Arrhythmia — irregularity or loss of rhythm, especially of the heartbeat. Arteriovenous — relating to both arteries and veins. Artery — in anatomy, a blood vessel that sends blood to the tissues from the heart. Aseptic — characterized by the absence of living pathogenic organisms; a state of sterility. Asperities — protruding elements of roughness on a surface, e.g., burrs or spurs. Asphyxia — condition of hypoxia caused by insufficient oxygen intake. Assembler — see molecular assembler. Asymptotic — in geometry and mathematics, a curve that approaches closer and closer, but never quite reaches, another curve or line. Asynchronous —not synchronized in time. atm — atmosphere, a unit of pressure; mean air pressure at Earth’s surface is 1 atmosphere (~1.01 x 10 N/m). Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) — an instrument that uses atomic forces between a sample and a sharp scanning needle tip to image surfaces to molecular accuracy by mechanically probing their surface contours; the AFM measures the tiny upward and downward motions of the tip as the tip is dragged over the surface, producing an atomic-resolution topographic map of the surface. The AFM has also been used to physically manipulate individual molecules. Atom laser — a laserlike device that uses beams of coherent atoms rather than photons. ATP — adenosine triphosphate; has two energy-rich phosphate bonds. Auscultation — the process of listening for sounds w
437 citations
TL;DR: Results show that distance between the transmitter and receiver has a minor effect on the achievable data rate whereas the energy budget’s effect is significant and it is shown that selecting appropriate threshold and symbol duration parameters are crucial to the performance of the system.
271 citations
"D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..." refers background in this paper
...A variety of molecular communication models are studied in [3], [5], [6]....
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TL;DR: Analytical and numerical results confirm that the proposed modulation techniques using isomers achieve higher data transmission rate performance than the insulin based concepts.
Abstract: In this paper, we propose three novel modulation techniques, i.e., concentration-based, molecular-type-based, and molecular-ratio-based, using isomers as messenger molecules for nano communication networks via diffusion. To evaluate achievable rate performance, we compare the proposed techniques with conventional insulin-based concepts under practical scenarios. Analytical and numerical results confirm that the proposed modulation techniques using isomers achieve higher data transmission rate performance than the insulin based concepts. We also investigate the tradeoff between messenger sizes and modulation orders and provide guidelines for selecting from among several possible candidates.
234 citations
"D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..." refers background in this paper
...2436409 Several modulation techniques are found in the literature [1], [7]–[9]....
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...We define the achievable rate that maximizes the mutual information between the transmitted symbol and the received symbol as follows [7]:...
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TL;DR: A layered architecture approach is applied to molecular communication, decomposes complex molecular communication functionality into a set of manageable layers, identifies basic functionalities of each layer, and develops a descriptive model consisting of key components of the layer for each layer.
Abstract: Molecular communication is an emerging communication paradigm for biological nanomachines. It allows biological nanomachines to communicate through exchanging molecules in an aqueous environment and to perform collaborative tasks through integrating functionalities of individual biological nanomachines. This paper develops the layered architecture of molecular communication and describes research issues that molecular communication faces at each layer of the architecture. Specifically, this paper applies a layered architecture approach, traditionally used in communication networks, to molecular communication, decomposes complex molecular communication functionality into a set of manageable layers, identifies basic functionalities of each layer, and develops a descriptive model consisting of key components of the layer for each layer. This paper also discusses open research issues that need to be addressed at each layer. In addition, this paper provides an example design of targeted drug delivery, a nanomedical application, to illustrate how the layered architecture helps design an application of molecular communication. The primary contribution of this paper is to provide an in-depth architectural view of molecular communication. Establishing a layered architecture of molecular communication helps organize various research issues and design concerns into layers that are relatively independent of each other, and thus accelerates research in each layer and facilitates the design and development of applications of molecular communication.
230 citations
"D-MoSK Modulation in Molecular Comm..." refers background in this paper
...2436409 Several modulation techniques are found in the literature [1], [7]–[9]....
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...N ANOMACHINES, nanometers and micrometers in size, are able to perform simple tasks like sensing, computing, storage, and actuation [1]....
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