Design and Control of Autonomous Underwater Robots: A Survey
TL;DR: This paper surveys some key areas in current state-of-the-art underwater robotic technologies, by no means a complete survey but provides key references for future development.
Abstract: During the 1990s, numerous worldwide research and development activities have occurred in underwater robotics, especially in the area of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). As the ocean attracts great attention on environmental issues and resources as well as scientific and military tasks, the need for and use of underwater robotic systems has become more apparent. Great efforts have been made in developing AUVs to overcome challenging scientific and engineering problems caused by the unstructured and hazardous ocean environment. In the 1990s, about 30 new AUVs have been built worldwide. With the development of new materials, advanced computing and sensory technology, as well as theoretical advancements, R&D activities in the AUV community have increased. However, this is just the beginning for more advanced, yet practical and reliable AUVs. This paper surveys some key areas in current state-of-the-art underwater robotic technologies. It is by no means a complete survey but provides key references for future development. The new millennium will bring advancements in technology that will enable the development of more practical, reliable AUVs.
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25 Jan 2008TL;DR: The goal of this review is to present a unified treatment of HRI-related problems, to identify key themes, and discuss challenge problems that are likely to shape the field in the near future.
Abstract: Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) has recently received considerable attention in the academic community, in labs, in technology companies, and through the media. Because of this attention, it is desirable to present a survey of HRI to serve as a tutorial to people outside the field and to promote discussion of a unified vision of HRI within the field. The goal of this review is to present a unified treatment of HRI-related problems, to identify key themes, and discuss challenge problems that are likely to shape the field in the near future. Although the review follows a survey structure, the goal of presenting a coherent "story" of HRI means that there are necessarily some well-written, intriguing, and influential papers that are not referenced. Instead of trying to survey every paper, we describe the HRI story from multiple perspectives with an eye toward identifying themes that cross applications. The survey attempts to include papers that represent a fair cross section of the universities, government efforts, industry labs, and countries that contribute to HRI, and a cross section of the disciplines that contribute to the field, such as human, factors, robotics, cognitive psychology, and design.
1,602 citations
02 Nov 2005
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a platform for underwater sensor networks to be used for long-term monitoring of coral reefs and fisheries, which consists of static and mobile underwater sensor nodes.
Abstract: In this paper we present a novel platform for underwater sensor networks to be used for long-term monitoring of coral reefs and fisheries. The sensor network consists of static and mobile underwater sensor nodes. The nodes communicate point-to-point using a novel high-speed optical communication system integrated into the TinyOS stack, and they broadcast using an acoustic protocol integrated in the TinyOS stack. The nodes have a variety of sensing capabilities, including cameras, water temperature, and pressure. The mobile nodes can locate and hover above the static nodes for data muling, and they can perform network maintenance functions such as deployment, relocation, and recovery. In this paper we describe the hardware and software architecture of this underwater sensor network. We then describe the optical and acoustic networking protocols and present experimental networking and data collected in a pool, in rivers, and in the ocean. Finally, we describe our experiments with mobility for data muling in this network.
657 citations
TL;DR: This article collates and discusses the significant advancements and applications of marine, terrestrial, and airborne robotic systems developed for environmental monitoring during the last two decades.
Abstract: Robotic systems are increasingly being utilized as fundamental data-gathering tools by scientists, allowing new perspectives and a greater understanding of the planet and its environmental processes. Today's robots are already exploring our deep oceans, tracking harmful algal blooms and pollution spread, monitoring climate variables, and even studying remote volcanoes. This article collates and discusses the significant advancements and applications of marine, terrestrial, and airborne robotic systems developed for environmental monitoring during the last two decades. Emerging research trends for achieving large-scale environmental monitoring are also reviewed, including cooperative robotic teams, robot and wireless sensor network (WSN) interaction, adaptive sampling and model-aided path planning. These trends offer efficient and precise measurement of environmental processes at unprecedented scales that will push the frontiers of robotic and natural sciences.
585 citations
Cites background from "Design and Control of Autonomous Un..."
...The following sections describe some key scientific and engineering achievements that are allowing robotics today address a wide range of environmental monitoring problems....
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TL;DR: The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the evolution of research topics in robotics from classical motion control for industrial robots to modern intelligent control techniques and social learning paradigms, among other aspects.
Abstract: This article surveys traditional research topics in industrial robotics and mobile robotics and then expands on new trends in robotics research that focus more on the interaction between human and robot. The new trends in robotics research have been denominated service robotics because of their general goal of getting robots closer to human social needs, and this article surveys research on service robotics such as medical robotics, rehabilitation robotics, underwater robotics, field robotics, construction robotics and humanoid robotics. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the evolution of research topics in robotics from classical motion control for industrial robots to modern intelligent control techniques and social learning paradigms, among other aspects.
285 citations
Cites background from "Design and Control of Autonomous Un..."
...Interested readers can find a nice survey on AUV research topics such as dynamics, control systems , navigation and sensors, communications, power systems, pressure hulls and fairing and mechanical manipulators in [45]....
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TL;DR: Current research trends in the field of AUVs and future research directions are presented and localization and navigation techniques such as inertial navigation to simultaneous localization and mapping being used in current AUVs are discussed in detail.
250 citations
References
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01 Jan 1994
TL;DR: Modeling of Marine Vehicles Environmental Disturbances Stability and Control of Underwater Vehicles Dynamics and Stability of Ships Automatic Control of Ships Control of High-Speed Craft Appendices Bibliography Index as mentioned in this paper
Abstract: Modeling of Marine Vehicles Environmental Disturbances Stability and Control of Underwater Vehicles Dynamics and Stability of Ships Automatic Control of Ships Control of High--Speed Craft Appendices Bibliography Index
3,577 citations
"Design and Control of Autonomous Un..." refers background in this paper
...Environmental disturbances,w, due to waves, wind, and ocean currents and their mathematical expressions are discussed in detail in Fossen (1994)....
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...Environmental disturbances, w, due to waves, wind, and ocean currents and their mathematical expressions are discussed in detail in Fossen (1994) ....
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TL;DR: In this article, a sliding-mode autopilot is designed for the combined steering, diving, and speed control functions of an AUV, assuming decoupled modeling, and the influence of speed, modeling nonlinearity, uncertainty, and disturbances can be effectively compensated.
Abstract: A six-degree-of-freedom model for the maneuvering of an underwater vehicle is used and a sliding-mode autopilot is designed for the combined steering, diving, and speed control functions. In flight control applications of this kind, difficulties arise because the system to be controlled is highly nonlinear and coupled, and there is a good deal of parameter uncertainty and variation with operational conditions. The development of variable-structure control in the form of sliding modes has been shown to provide robustness that is expected to be quite remarkable for AUV autopilot design. It is shown that a multivariable sliding-mode autopilot based on state feedback, designed assuming decoupled modeling, is quite satisfactory for the combined speed, steering, and diving response of a slow AUV. The influence of speed, modeling nonlinearity, uncertainty, and disturbances, can be effectively compensated, even for complex maneuvering. Waypoint acquisition based on line-of-sight guidance is used to achieve path tracking. >
917 citations
"Design and Control of Autonomous Un..." refers methods in this paper
...Various advanced underwater robot control systems have been proposed in the literature, such as sliding control (Yoerger and Slotine, 1985; Healey and Lienard, 1993), nonlinear control (Nakamura and Savant, 1992), adaptive control (Goheen et al., 1990; Yuh, 1990a, 1996; Cristi et al., 1991; Tabaii…...
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...Various advanced underwater robot control systems have been proposed in the literature, such as sliding control (Yoerger and Slotine, 1985; Healey and Lienard, 1993), nonlinear control (Nakamura and Savant, 1992), adaptive control (Goheen et al....
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...Healey and Lienard (1993) have used the sliding mode methods for the control of underwater vehicles and separated the system into non-interacting (or lightly interacting) subsystems, grouping certain key motion equations together for the separate functions of steering, diving, and speed control....
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TL;DR: In this article, a recent extension of sliding mode control is shown to handle nonlinearities, is highly robust to imprecise models, explicitly accounts for the presence of high-frequency unmodeled dynamics, and produces designs that are easy to understand.
Abstract: underwater vehicles present difficult control-system design problems due to their nonlinear dynamics, uncertain models, and the presence of disturbances that are difficult to measure or estimate. In this paper, a recent extension of sliding mode control is shown to handle these problems effectively. The method deals directly with nonlinearities, is highly robust to imprecise models, explicitly accounts for the presence of high-frequency unmodeled dynamics, and produces designs that are easy to understand. Using a nonlinear vehicle simulation, the relationship between model uncertainty and performance is examined. The results show that adequate controllers can be designed using simple nonlinear models, but that performance improves as model uncertainty is decreased and the improvements can be predicted quantitatively.
513 citations
"Design and Control of Autonomous Un..." refers background or methods in this paper
...Various advanced underwater robot control systems have been proposed in the literature, such as sliding control (Yoerger and Slotine, 1985; Healey and Lienard, 1993), nonlinear control (Nakamura and Savant, 1992), adaptive control (Goheen et al., 1990; Yuh, 1990a, 1996; Cristi et al., 1991; Tabaii…...
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...Various advanced underwater robot control systems have been proposed in the literature, such as sliding control (Yoerger and Slotine, 1985; Healey and Lienard, 1993), nonlinear control (Nakamura and Savant, 1992), adaptive control (Goheen et al....
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...Yoerger and Slotine (1985) have proposed a sliding mode controller for an underwater vehicle to control trajectory....
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TL;DR: In this paper, a nonlinear parametric model of a torque-controlled thruster is developed and experimentally confirmed, and three forms of compensation are tested, utilizing a hybrid simulation combining an instrumented thruster with a real-time mathematical vehicle model.
Abstract: A nonlinear parametric model of a torque-controlled thruster is developed and experimentally confirmed. The model shows that the thruster behaves like a sluggish nonlinear filter, where the speed of response depends on the commanded thrust level. A quasi-linear analysis which utilizes describing functions shows that the dynamics of the thruster produce a strong bandwidth constraint and a limit cycle, which are both commonly seen in practice. Three forms of compensation are tested, utilizing a hybrid simulation combining an instrumented thruster with a real-time mathematical vehicle model. The first compensator, a linear lead network, is easy to implement and greatly improves performance over the uncompensated system, but does not perform uniformly over the entire operating range. The second compensator, which attempts to cancel the nonlinear effect of the thruster, is effective over the entire operating range but depends on an accurate thruster model. The final compensator, an adaptive sliding controller, is effective over the entire operating range and can compensate for uncertainties or the degradation of the thruster. >
349 citations
"Design and Control of Autonomous Un..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The effect of thruster dynamics on the vehicle also becomes significant, especially when the vehicle has slow and fine motion (Yoerger et al., 1990)....
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...For bladed-propeller type underwater thrusters driven by brushless DC motors, an experimental study to compare four thruster models including those by Yoerger et al. (1990) and Healey et al. (1994) was conducted by Whitcomb and Yoerger (1995)....
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TL;DR: The first public digital map of the world's human population appeared in 1995 and was used by Cohen et al. as discussed by the authors to obtain more precise estimates of coastal populations as of 1994.
Abstract: The excellent article by Peter M. Vitousek et al . ([25 July, p. 495][1]) states: “The human population is concentrated near coasts—about 60% within 100 km [kilometers]… .” This assertion comes from a recent World Resources Institute report ([1][2], p. 254): “An estimated 60 percent of the global population lives within roughly 100 kilometers of the shore.” This statement comes from a 1990 book ([2][3], p. 7): “Probably 60 percent of humanity, or nearly 3 billion people, live on or within 100 km of a sea coast.” The author of the latter book, Don Hinrichsen, an environmental journalist, informed one of us (J.E.C.) ([3][4]) that this statement was his “own assessment based on extensive back-of-the-envelope estimates using the best available data at the time.”
More recently, Hinrichsen reported ([4][5], p. 39): “Nearly two-thirds of the world's people make their homes within 150 kilometers of the shore.”
To our knowledge, the first public digital map of the world's human population appeared in 1995 ([5][6]). The data are freely available on the World Wide Web ([6][7]). These data make it possible to obtain more precise estimates of coastal populations as of 1994. As part of larger research programs, two groups with interests in the interactions between the earth sciences and the social sciences have independently co-registered the global digital population map on digital maps of coastlines. Using the digital World Vector Shoreline ([7][8]), two of us (C.S. and J.E.C.) estimate that approximately 37% (2.07 billion) of the 1994 population (5.62 billion) lived within 100 km of a coastline, and approximately 44% (2.45 billion) within 150 km of a coastline. These percentages are lower than those of Hinrichsen. In addition, C.S. and J.E.C. estimate that 49% of the 1994 population lived within 200 km of a coastline, and 66% within 400 km.
Using the boundaries (compounded from various sources) provided by the gridded population of the world ([6][7]) and a different algorithm for computing distance to coastline, three of us (A.M., J.G., and J.S.) estimate that 37% lived within 100 km of a coastline. This estimate agrees with that of C.S. and J.E.C. Both groups anticipate that these estimates could be refined by the use of better data and methods.
While our estimates of coastal population size are considerably smaller than Hinrichsen's, we agree that very large numbers of people affect and are affected by coastal zones.
1. [↵][9]World Resources Institute, World Bank, World Resources 1996-97 (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1996).
2. [↵][10]D. Hinrichsen, Our Common Seas: Coasts in Crisis (Earthscan, London, and Nairobi, Kenya, 1990).
3. [↵][11]\___|, personal communication.
4. [↵][12]\___|, Issues Sci. Technol. 12 (no. 4), 39 (1996).
5. [↵][13]W. Tobler, U. Deichmann, J. Gottsegen, K. Maloy, “The global demography project” (Technical Report 95-6, National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 1995).
6. [↵][14]CIESIN, “Gridded population of the world,”
7. [↵][15]National Imagery and Mapping Agency, “World Vector Shoreline,”
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Response: We thank Cohen et al . for their analysis, which should become the standard statement on coastal populations.
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302 citations
"Design and Control of Autonomous Un..." refers background in this paper
...About 37% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of the ocean (Cohen et al., 1997)....
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