Design of a candidate thermal control system for a cryogenically cooled computer
11 May 1988-Vol. 11, Iss: 4, pp 115-126
TL;DR: The thermal aspects of an immersion-cooled computer designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures are discussed in detail in this paper, including the selection of a working fluid, the determination of the mode, or modes, of heat transfer to be used, and the selection, or development, of any required heat transfer correlations.
Abstract: The thermal aspects are discussed of an immersion-cooled computer designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures. Several of the major thermal design issues are discussed in detail. These include: (1) the selection of a working fluid; (2) the determination of the mode, or modes, of heat transfer to be used: (3) the selection, or development, of any required heat transfer correlations; and (4) the selection of a refrigeration system. The results of a preliminary analysis of a candidate thermal control system are also presented. >
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TL;DR: It is concluded that power management is a multifaceted discipline that is continually expanding with new techniques being developed at every level and it remains too early to tell which techniques will ultimately solve the power problem.
Abstract: Power consumption is a major factor that limits the performance of computers. We survey the “state of the art” in techniques that reduce the total power consumed by a microprocessor system over time. These techniques are applied at various levels ranging from circuits to architectures, architectures to system software, and system software to applications. They also include holistic approaches that will become more important over the next decade. We conclude that power management is a multifaceted discipline that is continually expanding with new techniques being developed at every level. These techniques may eventually allow computers to break through the “power wall” and achieve unprecedented levels of performance, versatility, and reliability. Yet it remains too early to tell which techniques will ultimately solve the power problem.
403 citations
Cites background from "Design of a candidate thermal contr..."
...Some blow cold air into the circuit, while others refrigerate the processor [Schmidt and Notohardjono 2002], sometimes even by costly means such as circulating cryogenic fluids like liquid nitrogen [Krane et al. 1988]....
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...Some blow cold air into the circuit, while others refrigerate the processor [Schmidt and Notohardjono 2002], sometimes even by costly means such as circulating cryogenic .uids like liquid nitrogen [Krane et al. 1988]....
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IBM1
TL;DR: The historical background of refrigeration from its use in the early 1800s to its implementation in computer systems in the late 1990s is reviewed and the advantages have outweighed the disadvantages, leading to the first use by IBM ofrigeration in cooling the S/390 G4 server.
Abstract: The IBM S/390® G4 CMOS system, first shipped in 1997, was the first high-end system to use refrigeration. The decision to employ refrigeration cooling instead of other cooling options such as high-flow air cooling or various water-cooling schemes focused on the potential system performance improvement obtainable by lowering coolant temperatures using a refrigeration system. This paper reviews the historical background of refrigeration from its use in the early 1800s to its implementation in computer systems in the early 1990s. The advantages and disadvantages of using refrigeration in the cooling of computer systems are examined. The advantages have outweighed the disadvantages, leading to the first use by IBM of refrigeration in cooling the S/390 G4 server. The design of the refrigeration system for the S/390 G4 system is described in detail, and some of the key parametric studies that contributed to the final design are described.
131 citations
Patent•
Cray1
TL;DR: A cooling system employs a cooling liquid and a cooling gas in a combined thermodynamic cycle to overcome the flow resistance of dense assemblies of heat generating components and to improve heat transfer by inducing turbulence, thereby reducing the effects of thermal hysteresis and boundary layer formation as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A cooling system employs a cooling liquid and a cooling gas in a combined thermodynamic cycle to overcome the flow resistance of dense assemblies of heat generating components and to improve heat transfer by inducing turbulence, thereby reducing the effects of thermal hysteresis and boundary layer formation. Sensible heat gain to the cooling liquid and gas and latent heat of vaporization of the cooling liquid also occur in channels through and over the components. The flow of cooling gas propels the cooling liquid through the channels. The cooling system is advantageous for cooling electronic components such as integrated circuits which exhibit relatively high degree of energy and physical density, in supercomputers. The cooling system may also be advantageously combined with an immersion cooling system for the power supply components in the computer.
121 citations
11 May 1991
TL;DR: The advantages of operating CMOS at liquid nitrogen temperature (LN) are attributed to increased carrier mobility, reduced subthreshold swing, increased conductivity, reduced leakage, an improved device and circuit reliability such as electromigration ionic migration, and latchup.
Abstract: The advantages of operating CMOS at liquid nitrogen temperature (LN) are attributed to increased carrier mobility, reduced subthreshold swing, increased conductivity, reduced leakage, an improved device and circuit reliability such as electromigration ionic migration, and latchup. The gain in performance compared to room temperature (RT), however, begins to erode as the channel length is decreased below one micrometer, where increased lateral field causes the drift velocity to approach its scattering limited value along a large fraction of the channel. In the limit when saturation velocity is reached along the entire channel, the improvement at LN does not exceed a factor of approximately=2, after all other enhancements are considered. This gain must justify the added inconvenience and cost of operating the system at LN temperatures. As the channel length is reduced to deep submicrometer, below approximately=0.15 mu m, operating at low temperature could become a necessity rather than mere improvement over RT, because of the lack of a room-temperature process and device design point. >
86 citations
Cites methods from "Design of a candidate thermal contr..."
...Some considerations for the thermal design of a lowtemperature electronic system have been described [ 23 ]:...
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TL;DR: In this article, the feasibility and potential for applications of intimately combining semiconductor and superconductor devices at circuit and system levels are examined, mainly focusing on the temperature range 27-77 K.
31 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, a water-cooled integral heat sink for silicon integrated circuits has been designed and tested at a power density of 790 W/cm2, with a maximum substrate temperature rise of 71°C above the input water temperature.
Abstract: The problem of achieving compact, high-performance forced liquid cooling of planar integrated circuits has been investigated. The convective heat-transfer coefficient h between the substrate and the coolant was found to be the primary impediment to achieving low thermal resistance. For laminar flow in confined channels, h scales inversely with channel width, making microscopic channels desirable. The coolant viscosity determines the minimum practical channel width. The use of high-aspect ratio channels to increase surface area will, to an extent, further reduce thermal resistance. Based on these considerations, a new, very compact, water-cooled integral heat sink for silicon integrated circuits has been designed and tested. At a power density of 790 W/cm2, a maximum substrate temperature rise of 71°C above the input water temperature was measured, in good agreement with theory. By allowing such high power densities, the heat sink may greatly enhance the feasibility of ultrahigh-speed VLSI circuits.
4,214 citations
01 Jan 1951
1,114 citations
01 Jun 1959
TL;DR: In this paper, the critical heat flux and the minimum heat flux are derived from these hydrodynamic limits, and results of investigations of nucleate boilin g are discussed and the theory of bubble growth is extended to include the effect of nonuniform temperature fields.
Abstract: A study concerned with the determination of the limiting hydrodynamic conditions which characterize nucleate and transitional boiling was conducted. The critical heat flux and the minimum heat flux are derived from these hydrodynamic limits. Results of investigations of nucleate boilin g are discussed and the theory of bubble growth is extended to include the effect of non-uniform temperature fields. An equation is derived for the product bubble diameter times frequency of bubble emission, and data showing that the diameter of nucleating cavities can he related to the heat flux density and superheat difference are presented. (J.R.D.)
953 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1983
TL;DR: In this article, thermal analysis and control of electronic equipment, thermal analysis of electronic devices and their control, thermal control and control in the field of software engineering, is discussed. ǫ
Abstract: Thermal analysis and control of electronic equipment , Thermal analysis and control of electronic equipment , مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی
339 citations
"Design of a candidate thermal contr..." refers background in this paper
...Data displayed in the text of Kraus and Bar-Cohen (1983) suggests that these flows are in the “isolated plate limit” for these values of channel Rayleigh number....
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