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Journal Article

Development of simple standard assay procedures for the characterization of snake venom.

01 Jan 1983-Bulletin of The World Health Organization (World Health Organization)-Vol. 61, Iss: 6, pp 949-956
TL;DR: Methods have been developed for the assessment of lethal, defibrinogenating, procoagulant, haemorrhagic, and necrotizing properties of venoms, and used to study 53 venoms from 30 different species of snakes of medical importance throughout the world, which should result in the production of more potent antivenoms for use in both developing and developed countries.
Abstract: In accordance with the recommendations of the report of a WHO Coordination Meeting on Venoms and Antivenoms, methods have been developed for the assessment of lethal, defibrinogenating, procoagulant, haemorrhagic, and necrotizing properties of venoms, and used to study 53 venoms from 30 different species of snakes of medical importance throughout the world The venoms studied included Echis carinatus (Iran), Naja naja kaouthia (Thailand), Notechis scutatus (Australia), Trimeresurus flavoviridis (Japan), Vipera russelli (Thailand), and Crotalus atrox (USA), which comprise six of the eight venoms designated by WHO as international reference venoms (IRVs) (C atrox venom replaced C adamanteus venom, as an adequate supply of the latter was not available) The tests used were simple and should be reproducible in other laboratories throughout the world Procedures for assaying neuromuscular paralytic activity and systemic myotoxic activity have yet to be developedThe tests will be used to assay the neutralizing potency of both international standard antivenoms (raised using the IRVs) and new and currently available commercial antivenoms Such studies should result in the production of more potent antivenoms for use in both developing and developed countries, and improve the understanding and management of snake bite throughout the world
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Owing to their protagonic role in the pathogenesis of local tissue damage, snake venom metalloproteinases constitute relevant targets for natural and synthetic inhibitors which may complement antivenoms in the neutralization of these effects.

495 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Apr 2003-Toxicon
TL;DR: There was much room for improving the production, quality control and safety profile of antivenoms and that lessons could be learnt from the experience gained with the preparation of human immunoglobulins, but international standards and reference materials were not appropriate in the antivenom field.

380 citations


Cites background or methods from "Development of simple standard assa..."

  • ...Over the next few years, some of these aims were achieved (Theakston and Reid, 1983)....

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  • ...…plasma (MCD-F, MCD-P), respectively, Minimum Necrotizing Dose (MND), an assessment of local necrotising effect and Minimum Defibrinogenating Dose (MDD), an assessment of the in vivo defibrinogenating effect of venom and the neutralisation of these activities by antivenom (Theakston and Reid, 1983)....

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  • ...The review of antivenom production methods indicated that the vast majority of commercial antivenoms were still produced by traditional technology in horses, although some antisera were raised in sheep and rabbits....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Examination of stomach and hindgut contents revealed extreme variation between the major clades of Echis in the proportion of arthropod prey consumed, providing strong evidence that variation in snake venom composition results from adaptive evolution driven by natural selection for different diets.
Abstract: The processes that drive the evolution of snake venom variability, particularly the role of diet, have been a topic of intense recent research interest. Here, we test whether extensive variation in venom composition in the medically important viper genus Echis is associated with shifts in diet. Examination of stomach and hindgut contents revealed extreme variation between the major clades of Echis in the proportion of arthropod prey consumed. The toxicity (median lethal dose, LD50) of representative Echis venoms to a natural scorpion prey species was found to be strongly associated with the degree of arthropod feeding. Mapping the results onto a novel Echis phylogeny generated from nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data revealed two independent instances of coevolution of venom toxicity and diet. Unlike venom LD50, the speed with which venoms incapacitated and killed scorpions was not associated with the degree of arthropod feeding. The prey-specific venom toxicity of arthropod-feeding Echis may thus be adaptive primarily by reducing venom expenditure. Overall, our results provide strong evidence that variation in snake venom composition results from adaptive evolution driven by natural selection for different diets, and underscores the need for a multi-faceted, integrative approach to the study of the causes of venom evolution.

289 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
15 Dec 2010-Toxicon
TL;DR: An integrated multifocal approach, currently being fostered by the Global Snake Bite Initiative of the International Society on Toxinology and by the World Health Organization, will help to alleviate the enormous burden of human suffering inflicted by snakebite envenoming.

275 citations


Cites background from "Development of simple standard assa..."

  • ...Together with the analysis of the cross-neutralization of specific toxic effects of venoms by antivenoms (Theakston and Reid, 1983; Theakston, 1986; Gutiérrez et al., 1996) and with the epidemiological information about the medically most relevant snake species, these techniques allow for the…...

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Protective activity of plants-Aristolochia indica, Hemidesmus indicus, Gloriosa superba, Strychnos nux-vomica, Eclipta prostrata, and Andrographis paniculata against the lethal action of snake venom and need further investigation.

271 citations

References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The preparation of a standard curve, the reproducibility of results and arguments for expressing in clinical practice the fibrinogen content in terms of whole blood rather than plasma are discussed.

265 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The isolation and characterization of the thrombin-like activity from the whole venom is described, finding that dogs injected with partially purified preparations of the venom would be protected from artificially induced thrombosis of the vena cava.
Abstract: REID, Thean, Chan and Baharon (1963) and Reid, Chan and Thean (1963) have described a defibrination syndrome following envenoming by the Malayan Pit-Viper (Ancistrodon rhodostoma). It was found that the patient’s blood was rendered incoagulable for periods as long as 14 days after a snake bite, and that during this time there were no episodes of severe bleeding. The anticoagulant effect of the venom appears to be the result of the progressive conversion of circuIating fibrinogen to fibrin (Regoeczi, Gergely and McFarlane, 1966) ; the fibrinogen being converted into microclots which were found in various organs. Recently Marsten, Chan, Ankeney and Botti (1966). have found that dogs injected with partially purified preparations of the venom would be protected from artificially induced thrombosis of the vena cava. Because of these findings and the apparently low toxicity of the crudevenom it might be possible to use this venom clinically as an anticoagulant. This paper describes the isolation and characterization of the thrombin-like activity from the whole venom.

194 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
23 Nov 1974-BMJ
TL;DR: Echis carinatus is the most important cause of morbidity and mortality from snake bite in Nigeria and in many other parts of the world, and patients with systemic poisoning by this snake were given echis antivenom made either by the South African Institute for Medical Research (S.A.M.I.R.R.) or by Behringwerke (North and West African polyvalent antivenoms).
Abstract: Echis carinatus is the most important cause of morbidity and mortality from snake bite in Nigeria and in many other parts of the world. Forty-six patients with systemic poisoning by this snake were given echis antivenom made either by the South African Institute for Medical Research (S.A.I.M.R.) or by Behringwerke (North and West African polyvalent antivenom). A simple test of blood coagulability was used to assess whether an adequate neutralizing dose of antivenom had been given. An average of 15·2 ml S.A.I.M.R. antivenom restored normal coagulability permanently in all 23 patients in one group, but in the other group receiving an average dose of 37·9 ml Behringwerke antivenom normal clotting resulted in only 18 out of 23 patients. Local tissue swelling was similar in both groups, but local necrosis occurred in three patients treated with Behringwerke antivenom and in none given S.A.I.M.R. antivenom.

106 citations