Doing Qualitative Research
About: This article is published in Journal of Advanced Nursing.The article was published on 1993-06-01. It has received 2707 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Qualitative research.
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TL;DR: This work examines less structured interview strategies in which the person interviewed is more a participant in meaning making than a conduit from which information is retrieved.
Abstract: BACKGROUND Interviews are among the most familiar strategies for collecting qualitative data. The different qualitative interviewing strategies in common use emerged from diverse disciplinary perspectives resulting in a wide variation among interviewing approaches. Unlike the highly structured survey interviews and questionnaires used in epidemiology and most health services research, we examine less structured interview strategies in which the person interviewed is more a participant in meaning making than a conduit from which information is retrieved. PURPOSE In this article we briefly review the more common qualitative interview methods and then focus on the widely used individual face-to-face in-depth interview, which seeks to foster learning about individual experiences and perspectives on a given set of issues. We discuss methods for conducting in-depth interviews and consider relevant ethical issues with particular regard to the rights and protection of the participants.
4,956 citations
TL;DR: A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes
Abstract: Sampling is central to the practice of qualitative methods, but compared with data collection and analysis its processes have been discussed relatively little. A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes matters of advertising, incentivising, avoidance of bias, and ethical concerns pertaining to informed consent. The extent to which these four concerns are met and made explicit in a qualitative study has implications for its coherence, tran...
2,286 citations
Cites background from "Doing Qualitative Research"
...…may be increased if ongoing data analysis leads the researcher to realise that he/she has omitted an important group or type of person from the original sample universe, who should be added to the sample in order to enhance the validity or transferability of the findings or theory (Silverman 2010)....
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...In all qualitative studies, there are strong grounds for monitoring data collection as it progresses and altering sample size within agreed parameters on theoretical or practical grounds (Silverman 2010)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors report the results of a two-stage study aimed at investigating online word of mouth (WOM) communication: a set of in-depth qualitative interviews followed by a social network analysis of a single online community.
1,632 citations
Cites methods from "Doing Qualitative Research"
...Data were transcribed verbatim as soon as possible and without waiting until all interviews were completed (D. Silverman, 2000)....
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TL;DR: The methodological trinity of reliability, validity and generalization is described and a shift from a position of fundamentalism to a more pluralistic approach as a means of legitimizing naturalistic inquiry is advocated.
Abstract: Aim. This paper discusses the literature on establishing rigour in research studies. It describes the methodological trinity of reliability, validity and generalization and explores some of the issues relating to establishing rigour in naturalistic inquiry.
Background. Those working within the naturalistic paradigm have questioned the issue of using validity, reliability and generalizability to demonstrate robustness of qualitative research. Triangulation has been used to demonstrate confirmability and completeness and has been one means of ensuring acceptability across paradigms. Emerging criteria such as goodness and trustworthiness can be used to evaluate the robustness of naturalistic inquiry.
Discussion. It is argued that the transference of terms across paradigms is inappropriate; however, if we reject the concepts of validity and reliability, we reject the concept of rigour. Rejection of rigour undermines acceptance of qualitative research as a systematic process that can contribute to the advancement of knowledge. Emerging criteria for demonstrating robustness in qualitative inquiry, such as authenticity, trustworthiness and goodness, need to be considered. Goodness, when not seen as a separate construct but as an integral and embedded component of the research process, should be useful in assuring quality of the entire study. Triangulation is a tried and tested means of offering completeness, particularly in mixed-method research. When multiple types of triangulation are used appropriately as the ‘triangulation state of mind’, they approach the concept of crystallization, which allows for infinite variety of angles of approach.
Conclusion. Qualitative researchers need to be explicit about how and why they choose specific legitimizing criteria in ensuring the robustness of their inquiries. A shift from a position of fundamentalism to a more pluralistic approach as a means of legitimizing naturalistic inquiry is advocated.
1,505 citations
Cites background from "Doing Qualitative Research"
...One of the inconsistencies that was not addressed and still exists in Guba and Lincoln’s work is the philosophical contradiction of member checking (Gallagher 1995, Silverman 2000b)....
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...Critiques by Silverman (2000a), Sparks (2001), Whittemore et al. (2001), and Morse et al. (2002) followed....
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...He refers to work by Smith (1993), Gallagher (1995), Bloor (1997) and Silverman (2000b) as highlighting the inconsistency of developing criteria that are parallel to positivist criteria, while rejecting the positivist paradigm....
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17 Oct 2017
TL;DR: This half-day tutorial will focus on the basic methods for analyzing qualitative data using a mixture of talks and hands-on activities and will consider closed and open coding as well as clustering and categorizing coded data.
Abstract: Evaluation is increasingly recognized as an essential component of HCI research. However, evaluation itself is a changing research area. In particular, the many variations of qualitative research are emerging as important empirical methods. This half-day tutorial is designed for beginning to intermediate audiences. We will focus on the basic methods for analyzing qualitative data using a mixture of talks and hands-on activities. In particular we will consider closed and open coding as well as clustering and categorizing coded data. After completing this tutorial, attendees will have a richer understanding of the benefits and challenges of qualitative empirical research and, more specifically, how to analyze qualitative data.
1,289 citations
Cites methods from "Doing Qualitative Research"
...In this activity we will introduce participants to closed coding, often also referred to as analysis with a priori codes [7]....
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References
More filters
TL;DR: This work examines less structured interview strategies in which the person interviewed is more a participant in meaning making than a conduit from which information is retrieved.
Abstract: BACKGROUND Interviews are among the most familiar strategies for collecting qualitative data. The different qualitative interviewing strategies in common use emerged from diverse disciplinary perspectives resulting in a wide variation among interviewing approaches. Unlike the highly structured survey interviews and questionnaires used in epidemiology and most health services research, we examine less structured interview strategies in which the person interviewed is more a participant in meaning making than a conduit from which information is retrieved. PURPOSE In this article we briefly review the more common qualitative interview methods and then focus on the widely used individual face-to-face in-depth interview, which seeks to foster learning about individual experiences and perspectives on a given set of issues. We discuss methods for conducting in-depth interviews and consider relevant ethical issues with particular regard to the rights and protection of the participants.
4,956 citations
TL;DR: A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes
Abstract: Sampling is central to the practice of qualitative methods, but compared with data collection and analysis its processes have been discussed relatively little. A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes matters of advertising, incentivising, avoidance of bias, and ethical concerns pertaining to informed consent. The extent to which these four concerns are met and made explicit in a qualitative study has implications for its coherence, tran...
2,286 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report the results of a two-stage study aimed at investigating online word of mouth (WOM) communication: a set of in-depth qualitative interviews followed by a social network analysis of a single online community.
1,632 citations
TL;DR: The methodological trinity of reliability, validity and generalization is described and a shift from a position of fundamentalism to a more pluralistic approach as a means of legitimizing naturalistic inquiry is advocated.
Abstract: Aim. This paper discusses the literature on establishing rigour in research studies. It describes the methodological trinity of reliability, validity and generalization and explores some of the issues relating to establishing rigour in naturalistic inquiry.
Background. Those working within the naturalistic paradigm have questioned the issue of using validity, reliability and generalizability to demonstrate robustness of qualitative research. Triangulation has been used to demonstrate confirmability and completeness and has been one means of ensuring acceptability across paradigms. Emerging criteria such as goodness and trustworthiness can be used to evaluate the robustness of naturalistic inquiry.
Discussion. It is argued that the transference of terms across paradigms is inappropriate; however, if we reject the concepts of validity and reliability, we reject the concept of rigour. Rejection of rigour undermines acceptance of qualitative research as a systematic process that can contribute to the advancement of knowledge. Emerging criteria for demonstrating robustness in qualitative inquiry, such as authenticity, trustworthiness and goodness, need to be considered. Goodness, when not seen as a separate construct but as an integral and embedded component of the research process, should be useful in assuring quality of the entire study. Triangulation is a tried and tested means of offering completeness, particularly in mixed-method research. When multiple types of triangulation are used appropriately as the ‘triangulation state of mind’, they approach the concept of crystallization, which allows for infinite variety of angles of approach.
Conclusion. Qualitative researchers need to be explicit about how and why they choose specific legitimizing criteria in ensuring the robustness of their inquiries. A shift from a position of fundamentalism to a more pluralistic approach as a means of legitimizing naturalistic inquiry is advocated.
1,505 citations
17 Oct 2017
TL;DR: This half-day tutorial will focus on the basic methods for analyzing qualitative data using a mixture of talks and hands-on activities and will consider closed and open coding as well as clustering and categorizing coded data.
Abstract: Evaluation is increasingly recognized as an essential component of HCI research. However, evaluation itself is a changing research area. In particular, the many variations of qualitative research are emerging as important empirical methods. This half-day tutorial is designed for beginning to intermediate audiences. We will focus on the basic methods for analyzing qualitative data using a mixture of talks and hands-on activities. In particular we will consider closed and open coding as well as clustering and categorizing coded data. After completing this tutorial, attendees will have a richer understanding of the benefits and challenges of qualitative empirical research and, more specifically, how to analyze qualitative data.
1,289 citations