Dry Machining and Minimum Quantity Lubrication
TL;DR: In this paper, a detailed analysis and adaptation of cutting parameters, cutting tools, machine tools and the production environment is mandatory to ensure an efficient process and successfully enable dry machining.
About: This article is published in CIRP Annals.The article was published on 2004-01-01. It has received 812 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Machining & Machine tool.
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TL;DR: A systematic overview of the state of the art in energy and resource efficiency increasing methods and techniques in the domain of discrete part manufacturing, with attention for the effectiveness of the available options is provided in this paper.
Abstract: A B S T R A C T This paper aims to provide a systematic overview of the state of the art in energy and resource efficiency increasing methods and techniques in the domain of discrete part manufacturing, with attention for the effectiveness of the available options. For this purpose a structured approach, distinguishing different system scale levels, is applied: starting from a unit process focus, respectively the multi-machine, factory, multi-facility and supply chain levels are covered. Determined by the research contributions reported in literature, the de facto focus of the paper is mainly on energy related aspects of manufacturing. Significant opportunities for systematic efficiency improving measures are identified and summarized in this area. 2012 CIRP.
936 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review and identify the materials known as difficult-to-machine and their properties and major health and environmental concerns about their usage in material cutting industries are defined.
Abstract: Machining difficult-to-machine materials such as alloys used in aerospace, nuclear and medical industries are usually accompanied with low productivity, poor surface quality and short tool life. Despite the broad use of the term difficult-to-machine or hard-to-cut materials, the area of these types of materials and their properties are not clear yet. On the other hand, using cutting fluids is a common technique for improving machinability and has been acknowledged since early 20th. However, the environmental and health hazards associated with the use of conventional cutting fluids together with developing governmental regulations have resulted in increasing machining costs. The aim of this paper is to review and identify the materials known as difficult-to-machine and their properties. In addition, different cutting fluids are reviewed and major health and environmental concerns about their usage in material cutting industries are defined. Finally, advances in reducing and/or eliminating the use of conventional cutting fluids are reviewed and discussed.
658 citations
Cites background from "Dry Machining and Minimum Quantity ..."
...The presence of inflammable magnesium chips close to the machining zone further increase the fire hazards on the shop floor [68]....
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...Magnesium is a highly inflammable material and the risk of ignition increases when temperatures exceed above 450°C, close to the material’s melting point (650°C) [68]....
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...[68] noted that removing the chips from the workspace of the machine tool during the cutting operation is very important....
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...[68] identified the benefits of adopting dry machining which are shown in figure 5....
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...Figure 5, benefits of adopting dry machining [68]...
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors present general issues, methods and a case study for achieving production sustainability on a machining technology level, and conclude that the future of sustainable production is going to entail the use of alternative machining technologies to reduce consumption rates, environmental burdens, and health risks simultaneously, while increasing performances and profitability.
461 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a new acceleration control method is developed to reduce energy consumption by synchronizing spindle acceleration with feed system, which applies for either regular drilling, face/end milling or deep hole machining.
440 citations
TL;DR: An overview of the recent advances in high performance cutting of aerospace alloys and composite currently used in aeroengine and aerostructure applications is presented in this paper, focusing on the role of hybrid machining processes and cooling strategies (MQL, high pressure coolant, cryogenic) on machining performance.
Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the recent advances in high performance cutting of aerospace alloys and composite currently used in aeroengine and aerostructure applications. Progress in cutting tool development and its effect on tool wear and surface integrity characteristics of difficult to machine materials such as nickel based alloys, titanium and composites is presented. Further, advances in cutting technologies are discussed, focusing on the role of hybrid machining processes and cooling strategies (MQL, high pressure coolant, cryogenic) on machining performance. Finally, industrial perspectives are provided in the context of machining specific components where future challenges are discussed.
388 citations
References
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Book•
15 Mar 1960
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe typical cutting operations, including: Elastic Behaviour Plastic Behaviour Fracture Dynamometry Shear Strain in Cutting Shear Stress in Cutting Friction Wear and Tool Life Cutting Temperatures Cutting Fields Tool Materials Work Material Considerations Complex Tools Surface Integrity Chip Control Optimisation Modeling of Chip Formation Precision Engineering Unusual Applications of the Metal Cutting Process
Abstract: Table of Contents Preface Symbols Introduction Typical Cutting Operations Mechanics of Steady State Elastic Behaviour Plastic Behaviour Fracture Dynamometry Shear Strain in Cutting Shear Stress in Cutting Friction Wear and Tool Life Cutting Temperatures Cutting Fields Tool Materials Work Material Considerations Complex Tools Surface Integrity Chip Control Optimisation Modeling of Chip Formation Precision Engineering Unusual Applications of the Metal Cutting Process
2,229 citations
TL;DR: A review of the main developments in cutting technology since the foundation of CIRP over fifty years ago is given in this paper, where the main technological developments associated with the cutting tool and tool materials, the workpiece material, the machine tool, the process conditions and the manufacturing environment are given detailed consideration.
624 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an overview of the metallurgical reactions during the vacuum sintering process of powder mixtures for the manufacture of cermets is presented, together with differential thermal analysis.
Abstract: An overview of the metallurgical reactions during the vacuum sintering process of powder mixtures for the manufacture of cermets is presented. The relatively complex phase reactions in the multi-component system Ti/Mo/W/Ta/Nb/C,N-Co/Ni are discussed. The liquid binder phase reacts with titanium carbonitride by preferentially dissolving titanium carbide leaving titanium nitride undissolved. The compositions and the amounts of the gas species set free during the sintering process were monitored and led —together with differential thermal analysis — to a better understanding of the mechanisms that govern the sintering behaviour. The properties and the microstructure of cermets depend on the nature and the alloy status of the prematerials. The composition of the prematerials with respect to the carbon-nitrogen ratio, the stoichiometry of the hard phase and the amount and composition of the binder phase have a decisive influence on the properties and the cutting performances of the final products. Optimization of the properties with respect to the desired performance is possible. Examples of the cermet cutting performance in various applications are discussed.
520 citations
20 Dec 2006
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a review of the state of the art in the field of Lubricants in the Tribological System, including the following: 1) friction and lube conditions, 2) special rheological effects, 3) chemical properties, 4) chemical characterisation of base oils, 5) synthetic base Oils, 6) polybutenes, and 7) polysiloxanes.
Abstract: The article contains sections titled:
1. Introduction
2. Lubricants in the Tribological System
2.1. Friction
2.1.1. Types of Friction
2.1.2. Friction and Lubrication Conditions
2.2. Wear
3. Rheology of Lubricants
3.1. Viscosity
3.2. Special Rheological Effects
3.3. Viscosity Grades
4. Base Oils
4.1. Historical Review and Outlook
4.2. Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils
4.3. Refining
4.3.1. Distillation
4.3.2. Deasphalting
4.3.3. Traditional Refining Processes
4.3.3.1. Acid Refining
4.3.3.2. Solvent Extraction
4.3.4. Solvent Dewaxing
4.3.5. Finishing
4.4. Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking
4.4.1. Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation
4.4.2. Production of White Oils
4.4.3. Lube Hydrocracking
4.4.4. Catalytic Dewaxing
4.4.5. Wax Isomerization
4.4.6. Hybrid Lube Oil Processing
4.4.7. All-Hydrogen Route
4.4.8. Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology
4.5. Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils
5. Synthetic Base Oils
5.1. Synthetic Hydrocarbons
5.1.1. Polyalphaolefins
5.1.2. Polyinternalolefins
5.1.3. Polybutenes
5.1.4. Alkylated Aromatics
5.1.5. Other Hydrocarbons
5.2. Halogenated Hydrocarbons
5.3. Synthetic Esters
5.3.1. Esters of Carboxylic Acids
5.3.1.1. Dicarboxylic Acid Esters
5.3.1.2. Polyol Esters
5.3.1.3. Other Carboxylic Esters
5.3.1.4. Complex Esters
5.3.1.5. Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters
5.3.2. Phosphate Esters
5.4. Polyalkylene Glycols
5.5. Other Polyethers
5.5.1. Perfluorinated Polyethers
5.5.2. Polyphenyl Ethers
5.5.3. Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils)
5.6. Other Synthetic Base Oils
5.7. Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants
6. Additives
6.1. Antioxidants
6.1.1. Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants
6.1.2. Compounds
6.2. Viscosity Modifiers
6.2.1. VI Improvement Mechanisms
6.2.2. Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers
6.3. Pour Point Depressants
6.4. Detergents and Dispersants
6.4.1. Metal-Containing Compounds (Detergents)
6.4.2. Ashless Dispersants (AD)
6.5. Antifoam Agents
6.6. Demulsifiers
6.7. Dyes
6.8. Antiwear and Extreme Pressure Additives
6.9. Friction Modifiers
6.10. Corrosion Inhibitors
6.10.1. Antirust Additives
6.10.2. Metal Passivators
7. Lubricants in the Environment
7.1. Current Situation
7.1.1. Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential
7.1.2. Agriculture, Economy, and Politics
7.2. Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants
7.2.1. Synthetic Esters
7.2.2. Polyalkylene Glycols
7.2.3. Polyalphaolefins
7.2.4. Relevant Properties of Biodegradable Base Oils
7.3. Additives
7.4. Products (Examples)
8. Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines
8.1. Four-Stroke Engine Oils
8.1.1. General Overview
8.1.1.1. Fundamental Principles
8.1.1.2. Performance Specifications
8.1.1.3. Formulation of Engine Oils
8.1.1.4. Additives
8.1.2. Characterization and Testing
8.1.2.1. Physical and Chemical Testing
8.1.2.2. Engine Testing
8.1.2.3. Passenger Car Engine Oils
8.1.2.4. Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles
8.1.3. Classification by Specification
8.1.3.1. MIL Specifications
8.1.3.2. API and ILSAC Classification
8.1.3.3. ACEA Specifications
8.1.3.4. Manufacturers’ Approvals
8.1.3.5. Future Trends
8.2. Two-Stroke Oils
8.2.1. Application and Characteristics
8.2.2. Classification
8.2.2.1. API Service Groups
8.2.2.2. JASO Classification
8.2.2.3. ISO Classification
8.2.3. Oils for Two-Stroke Outboard Engines
8.2.4. Environmentally Friendly Two-Stroke Oils
8.3. Tractor Oils
8.4. Gas Engine Oils
8.5. Marine Diesel Engine Oils
8.5.1. Low-Speed Crosshead Engines
8.5.2. Medium-Speed Engines
8.5.3. Lubricants
9. Gear Lubrication Oils
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Requirements of Gear Lubrication Oils
9.3. Tribology of Gears
9.3.1. Friction Conditions of Gear Types
9.3.2. Specific Gear and Transmission Failure
9.4. Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles
9.4.1. Lubricants for Gear Drives in Commercial Vehicles
9.4.2. Lubricants for Gear Drives in Passenger Cars
9.4.3. Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs
9.5. Multipurpose Lubricants in Vehicle Gears
9.6. Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears
10. Compressor Oils
10.1. Gas Compressor
10.1.1. Displacement Compressors
10.1.2. Dynamic Compressors
10.1.3. Preparation of Compressed Air
10.1.4. Oils for Compression of Other Gases
10.1.5. Characteristics of Gas Compressor Oils
10.1.6. Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils
10.2. Refrigerator Oils
10.2.1. Introduction
10.2.2. Minimum Requirements
10.2.3. Classification
10.2.4. Viscosity Selection
11. Turbine Oils
11.1. Demands on Turbine Oils - Characteristics
11.2. Formulation
11.3. Specifications
11.4. Turbine Oil Circuits
11.5. Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils
11.6. Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils
11.7. Gas Turbine Oils - Application and Requirements
11.8. Fire-Resistant, Water-Free Fluids for Power Station Applications
11.9. Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants
12. Metalworking Fluids
12.1. Mechanism of Action
12.2. Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids
12.2.1. Composition
12.2.2. Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods
12.2.3. Concentration of Water-Mixed Cutting Fluids
12.2.4. Stability of Coolants
12.2.5. Foaming Properties
12.2.6. Preservation of Coolants with Biocides
12.3. Neat Cutting Fluids
12.3.1. Specifications
12.3.2. Composition
12.4. Application
12.4.1. Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges
12.4.2. Machining with Geometric Non-Defined Cutting Edges
12.5. Storage
12.6. Environmental Aspects
12.7. New Trends in Coolant Technology
13. Forming Lubricants
13.1. Sheet Metal Working Lubricants
13.1.1. Deep Drawing
13.1.2. Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing
13.1.3. Shear Cutting
13.1.4. Choice of Lubricants
13.1.5. Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing
13.2. Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing
13.2.1. Wire Drawing
13.2.2. Profile Drawing
13.2.3. Tube Drawing
13.2.4. Hydroforming
13.3. Lubricants for Rolling
13.3.1. Rolling Steel Sheet
13.3.2. Rolling Aluminum Sheet
13.3.3. Rolling of Other Materials
13.4. Lubricants for Solid Metal Forming
14. Lubricating Greases
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Components of Greases
14.2.1. Thickeners
14.2.1.1. Simple Soaps
14.2.1.2. Complex Soaps
14.2.2. Other Ionic Organic Thickeners
14.2.3. Nonionic Organic Thickeners
14.2.4. Inorganic Thickeners
14.2.5. Miscellaneous Thickeners
14.2.6. Temporarily Thickened Fluids
14.3. Base Oils
14.3.1. Mineral Oils
14.3.2. Synthetic Base Oils
14.4. Grease Structure
14.5. Additives
14.6. Manufacture of Greases
14.6.1. Metal Soap-Based Greases
14.6.2. Oligourea Greases
14.6.3. Gel Greases
14.7. Grease Rheology
14.8. Performance
14.8.1. Test Methods
14.8.2. Analytical Methods
14.9. Applications
14.9.1. Roller Bearings
14.9.2. Cars, Trucks, Construction Vehicles
14.9.3. Steel Mills
14.9.4. Mining
14.9.5. Railroad, Railway
14.9.6. Gears
14.9.7. Food-Grade Applications
14.9.8. Textile Machines
14.9.9. Applications with Polymeric Materials
14.10. Ecology and the Environment
14.11. Grease Tribology
15. Solid Lubricants
15.1. Classification
15.1.1. Class 1: Structural Lubricants
15.1.2. Class 2: Mechanical Lubricants
15.1.3. Class 3: Soaps
15.1.4. Class 4: Chemically Active Lubricants
15.2. Characteristics
15.2.1. Crystal Structures of Lamellar Solid Lubricants
15.2.2. Heat Stability
15.2.3. Thermal Conductivity
15.2.4. Adsorbed Films
15.2.5. Chemical Stability
15.2.6. Particle Size
15.3. Products Containing Solid Lubricants
15.3.1. Powders
15.3.2. Dispersions and Suspensions
15.3.3. Greases and Grease Pastes
15.3.4. Pastes
15.3.5. Dry-Film Lubricants
15.4. Industrial Uses of Products Containing Solid Lubricants
15.4.1. Screw Lubrication
15.4.2. Roller-Bearing Lubrication
15.4.3. Slide Bearing, Slide Guideway, and Slide Surface Lubrication
15.4.4. Chain Lubrication
15.4.5. Plastic and Elastomer Lubrication
16. Testing and Analysis
16.1. Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils
16.2. Laboratory Methods for Testing Lubricants
16.2.1. Density
16.2.2. Viscosity
16.2.3. Refractive Index
16.2.4. Structural Analyses
16.2.5. Flash Point
16.2.6. Surface Phenomena
16.2.7. Cloud Point, Pour Point
16.2.8. Aniline Point
16.2.9. Water Content
16.2.10. Ash Content
16.2.11. Acidity, Alkalinity
16.2.12. Aging Tests
16.2.13. Hydrolytic Stability
16.2.14. Corrosion Tests
16.2.15. Oil Compatibility of Seals and Insulating Materials
16.2.16. Evaporation Loss
16.2.17. Analysis of Grease
16.3. Mechanical - Dynamic Testing Methods for Lubricants
16.3.1. Tribological System Categories within Lubricant Tests
16.3.2. Standardized and Nonstandardized Test Methods for Lubricants
16.3.3. Common Mechanical - Dynamic Testers
17. Economic Aspects
18. Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils
18.1. Possible Uses of Waste Oil
18.2. Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning
18.3. Re-refining
19. Toxicology and Occupational Health
19.1. Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials)
19.1.1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA)
19.1.2. Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids
19.2. Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants
20. Acknowledgement
379 citations
TL;DR: This paper attempts to review the development of parallel kinematics for machine tools, their practical application and their performance compared to classical machine tools.
288 citations